J

THE FISHES

OF

s

H I,
MASS.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

i:y

FEANCIS DAY, F.L.S., & F.Z.S.,

KNIGHT OF THE CROWN OF ITALY, HON. MEMBER DEUTSCHER FISCHEREI-VEREIN, AND OF THE
AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY, MEMBER OF THK ASIATIC SOCIETY OF CALCUTTA AND
OF THE COTSWOLD NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB, ETC.. DEPUTY SURGEON-
GENERAL MADRAS ARMY, (RETIRED,) AND FORMERLY INSPECTOR-
GENERAL OF FISHERIES IN INDIA.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOLUME I.

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,

14, HENRIETTA STEEET, COVEN T GARDEN, LONDON;
and 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.

18801884.

LONDON :

G. NORMAN AND SON, PRINTEKS, HART STREET,

COVENT GARDEN.

PREFACE.

Twenty years having elapsed since the last editions of the elaborate
treatises on " British Fishes " by Yarrell and Couch were published, I
venture to offer to the public a new work on our fish-fauna, wherein I have
' attempted to incorporate many of the discoveries of recent times. For
latterly investigations into our fish and fisheries have been pursued with
increased zeal, and many facts ascertained materially modifying some of tho
conclusions formerly arrived at. My desire has been to produce a work
useful to the zoological student, fish-culturist, fisherman, and the general
public all of whom are more or less interested in the fish-fauna of the
British Isles, whether as regards their geographical, zoological, sporting, or
economic aspects.

As the value of a work of this description is much increased by
illustrations, I have personally delineated every species from nature. Why
I was unable to retain the services of my professional artist the subjoined
letter from the Secretary to the Trustees of the British Museum* will
explain.

The number of zoologists who have made the fish-fauna of our isles
the subject for their special study is very considerable, as will be seen by
the following list. While in addition to those who are not specially alluded
to others have also done good service, either as compilers or investigators
into the habits or other subjects pertaining to one or more of our indigenous
species, recording their discoveries in articles sent to different scientific
publications or in the pages of weekly and other journals, and which, so
far as I have been able, I have referred to under the various species to
which such remarks pertain.

In the year 1662, Sir Thomas Browne compiled a list of the Norfolk
fishes, on which he made several interesting observations; in 1684, Sir
Robert Sibbald, in " Scotiee Prod. Nat. Hist./' describes the fishes of that
country. Willughby and Ray appear to have been the. joint authors of
"Historia Pisciurn," published at Oxford in 1686; while in 1713 a
posthumous work by the latter, entitled " Synopsis Methodica Piscium/'

* "Dear Sir, Having referred your letter of the 13th to Dr. Gunther, I learn from him that
as both you and he are engaged in preparing a publication on British Fishes, he thinks it
inconvenient and against the interests of either work that the same artist should be employed on
both. He has, therefore, intimated to Mr. Mintern that if he is working cuts for you he will
engage another artist for himself. This is a matter which cannot be considered to concern the
Trustees. Yours, &c, Ed. A. Bond." {August 207i, 1880.)

a

11 TREFACE.

was printed in London, and in it were added some descriptions and figures
of rare Cornish fishes, made by the Reverend G. Jagp, the minister of Looc
in that county. Wallace's "Description of the Islands of Orkney" was
published in 1693, and contains an account of some of the fish. Dale, in a
"History of the Antiquities of Harwich and Doverscourt," 1730, devotes a
portion of the appendix (pp. 420-436.) to the local fishes. The Reverend
W. Porlase, e.k.s., in 1758, published a work on the "Natural History of
Cornwall," in which a portion of chapter xxiii and three plates refer to
fishes. Pennant, in his ({ British Zoology," 1776, devoted most of volume iii
and sixty-six plates to fishes : a second edition of this work Was published .
with additions after his death in 1812. Donovan, between the years 1802
and 1808, brought out his beautifully illustrated work on "British Fishes,"
in five volumes, containing 120 figures and descriptions. G. Shaw, in his
"General Zoology," 1800-1819, devotes volumes iv and v (1803-1801),
with 182 plates, to fishes, and has likewise observations on the same subject-
in the "Naturalist's Miscellany," 1789-1813. Turton, in his "British'
Fauna," 1807, devotes from p. 82 to 117 to fish. Colonel Montagu, in the
"Wernerian Memoirs," 1811 and 1818, has some observations and figures
of new and little-known British fishes. Patrick Neill gives a " List of the
Fishes found in the Frith of Forth " (pp. 526-555), in the " Wernerian
Memoirs," for 1811. .0. and /. Paget, in their "History of Yarmouth,"
Ilogg in the "Natural History of Stockton-on-Tees," 1829, and Lubboclc
in the " Fauna of Norfolk," 1845, refer to the local fishes. In 1813, the
" Fauna Orcadensis," by the Rev. George Low, minister of Birsa and Harray,
appeared; it had been written between the years 1774 and 1795, and from
pago 167 to 230 are given to fish. Fleming, in 1828, in a "History of
British Animals," devotes pp. 162-222 to descriptions of fishes. In 1828,
Mrs. Powdich published some plates of British Fresh-water Fishes. Jenyns,
in a " Manual of British Vertebrate Animals," 1835, describes the fishes
(pp. 306-521). Yarrcll, in. 1835, commenced the first edition of his
" British Fishes," completed the succeeding year in two volumes, and
illustrated with nearly 400 wood engravings ; the second edition was
published in 1811, and the third by Sir J. Richardson, p.k.s., in 1859.
Parncll published his "prize essay on the natural and economical history of
the fishes, marine, fluviatile and lacustrine, of the river district of the Firth
of Forth," in the " Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society," vii,

1838, pp. 161-460, with plates xviii to xliv. Johnston, in 1838, at the annual
meeting of the Berwickshire Naturalist's Club, gave a list of the fishes of that
county. Sivainson describes " Fishes in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia,"

1839, with figures. Sir W. Jardine, f.r.s., "British Salmonidas," in 1839,
with large folio plates. Meynell gave a paper on " tho Fishes of York-
shire" to the British Association in 1811. Dillwyn, on the " Fauna and

PREFACE.

Flora of Swansea/' 1818, chapter iii, from page 11 to 17, being on the local
fish-fauna. In 1851, Mr. Adam White and Dr. John Edward Gray published
a " List of the specimens of British Animals in the British Museum/' fish
occupying 162 pages. Baker gave a paper on the " Fishes of Somerset-
shire/' in 1851, to the " Somersetshire Archa3ological and Natural History
Society," in the proceedings of which it is published. Harris, in 1851,
published in volume ix of the " Zoologist," a " List of the fishes of the
Moray Firth/' Gordon, in 1852, in the same publication, also gave a list of
those from the Moray Firth. In the same year Peach gave a paper to
the British Association on " Some fishes found at Peterhead." In 1853,
W* Baihie gave a list of the "Fishes of the Orkneys and Shetlands," in
the " Zoologist." Dr.. A. Gilnther, p.k.s., published between 1859 and
1870 a " Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum," in eight
Volumes. In the appendix to Ferguson's "Natural History of Redcar,"
is an account of the fishes of that locality. In 18 GO, Mrs. Merrifield,
in ' ' A sketch of the Natural History of Brighton and its Vicinity/' gives
a chapter on the " Fishes." In 1861, Mr. Iliggins published in the
" Zoologist " " Remarks on some of the fishes of Weston-sivper-Mare."
Couch commenced his " Fishes of the British Isles " in 1862, and
completed them in 1865, in three volumes, with 252 coloured plates.
In 1864, Gill published in the " Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Science of Philadelphia," 1864 (p. 199), a paper "on the affinities of several
doubtful British Fishes." Mcintosh, in the "Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh," volume v, 1862-65,* gave a paper on "the Fishes
of North Uist," and in 1874, in a work on "the Marine Invertebrates and
Fishes of St. Andrews," describes the latter (pp. 171-185). Dr. Lowe, in the
"Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist's Society,"- 1873-74,
published an account of the " Fishes of Norfolk." In 1875, Mr. E. Parfitt,
in the " Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of
Science and Literature," gave an account of the " Fishes of Devonshire."
In 1876, the investigations of. Edward in Banffshire were published in "the
Life of a Scotch Naturalist," and a list in the appendix (pp. 417-429).
Mr. G. Sim includes the observations made by the late Dr. Dyce, in a
" Catalogue of fish found in the vicinity of Aberdeen " in the Transactions
of the local Society in 1878. Mr. Dunn, in the " Journal of the Royal
Institution of Cornwall," no. xxii, gave " Remarks upon some Cornish
Fishes." Mr. Franh BucMand, in 1873, published a "Familiar History
of British Fishes," enlarged in 1880, and termed a " Natural History

* Subsequent to the publication of part viii of this work and the completion of the addenda,
Dr. Mcintosh kindly forwarded to me a specimen of Lwmpemts lampetrwformis, which Blennoid
had been trawled fifteen miles off St. Abb's head, and the first recorded British specimen (see
" Proceedings of Zoological Society for June," 1884, with a figure).

a *

IV PREFACE.

of British Fishes," with woodcuts. In 1879, F. Day, in the ''Proceedings
of the Zoological Society" (p. 742), gave an acount of the "Fishes of
Weston-super-Mare." In the same year, the Reverend Mr. Houghton
published an account of the " British Freshwater Fishes," with coloured
illustrations. In 1881, Mr. Eagle Clarke and Mr. D. Roebuck brought out
the "Yorkshire Vertebrata," in which pp. 99-133 are devoted to fish. . In
1882, Mr. F. Sawyer gave a paper to the " Brighton and Sussex Natural
History Society " on " Sussex Fish and Fisheries " and Mr. Orellin has
compiled a list of the " Fishes of the Isle of Man."

In Ireland, Br. Rutty (1772) published an "Essay towards a natural
history of the county of Dublin," and in volume i, from page 345 to 369 is
devoted to fish; also Harris, in the "History of County Down," 1744;
Sampson's "History of Londonderry," 1802; McSkimmins "History of
Carrickfergus ;" Dubordieu's " History of County Down," 1802; all have local
lists of fish. Templeton's " List of Fishes of Belfast " was published in the
" Magazine of Natural History," in 1837. In 1856, Thompson's "Natural
History of Ireland " was brought out, and in volume iv, pp. 69-268, are
collected the various ichthyolo'gical papers written by that author. More,
who also published a list of " the Fishes of the Isle of Wight," gave in the
"Journal of the Boyal Dublin Society," volume v, 1866-70, a paper on the
" Fishes of the South-Western Coast of- Ireland." In 1869, Andrews likewise
published a paper on the same subject.

It now becomes my pleasing duty to offer my sincere thanks to those
who have assisted me by obtaining information and specimens, or have
helped my work through the press. Among the former I must particularly
allude to Mr. Matthias Dunn, of Mevagissey, whose intimate knowledge of
fishes and unwearied search after information and specimens, which he has
always been most ready to communicate, have proved of invaluable service.
The late Professor Peters, Director of the Berlin Museum ; Professor. Hubrecht,
of Utrecht ; and Professor Giglioli, Director of the Vertebrate Museum at
Florence, have likewise given me much assistance. Mr. Sim, of Aberdeen ;
Mr. Kermode, of the Isle of Man ; Mr. T. Carrington, f.l.s., late of the West-
minster Royal Aquarium ; Dr. Murie, f.l.s., and .Mr. G. Brooks, f.l.s., have all
assisted me with specimens of marine and fresh-water fishes. Sir J. Ramsay
Gibson-Maitland, Bart., f.l.s., has also afforded me invaluable information and
opportunities of investigation at his justly celebrated Howietoun Fisheries.

I have also to offer my best thanks to A. G. Brisbane Neill, Esq., of the
Madras Medical Service (retired) for his invaluable assistance in carrying
this work through the press, and thus enabling me to bring out the various
numbers at the periods specified in the original prospectus.

INTRODUCTION.

When commencing to investigate fish and fisheries, it naturally first occurs
to the inquirer to ask what is a fish ? at what geological epoch of time did it
first leave a trace of its existence on the surface of the globe we inhabit ?
how does it live, move, and continue its kind ?

In a work like the present, a small space only can be given to some of
these various questions, and I have deemed it best to abbreviate remarks
upon embryology, comparative anatomy and physiology, as well as the
numerous and diversified systems of classification (referring the reader to the
various treatises on these subjects) in order to dwell more particularly upon
facts that come especially to the notice of the field-naturalist, fish-culturist
and fisherman.

For practical purposes it is highly desirable to endeavour to ascertain what
are the geographical limits within which the various forms of fish life are
found, should the species be migratory, the causes of their migrations, and
how such are dependent on ocean circulation, currents, seasons, temperature,
food, or the necessity for the continuation of their kind. Why is it that
some forms flourish and increase while others dwindle away and decrease ;
what are the effects of light or darkness, depths or the varied physical con-
ditions of the waters in which they reside ? Likewise how fish are affected
by storms and electrical disturbances, or in short what are their enemies or
their friends, and conditions tending towards the perpetuation or extermina-
tion of their race ?

When inquiring into what is their favourite food, we have to remember
that in selecting such they must be guided by the faculties of sight, taste, or
smell, perhaps assisted by touch, and possibly by sound, and this leads on
to the consideration of respiration and digestion. Fishes likewise possess
emotions and instincts, sensibility to pain or the reverse, modifications of
form sometimes due to age or sex, and alterations of colour consequent upon
the nuptial season, external relationship or disease.

Some residing at great depths or in dark caverns have their eyes deficient,
others in the abysses of the ocean possess them enormously developed in
order to utilize every ray of light, while a few likewise living in apparently

VI EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

similar conditions emit light. Again we find forms seeking refuge in other
animals,, or else as commensals using them as vehicles for conveying them
from one place to another, or fastening on their neighbours for their own
carnivorous purposes.- Then there is the breeding of fishes whether natural
or artificial, hybridism and its effects, sterility and its causes; diseases and
the mode of destruction of fish ; and lastly, fisheries, and how they are worked.
Fish are the lowest class of the vertebrate division of the animal kingdom,
destined to pass their lives in a watery element, and having their bodies
very diversely modified in order to accommodate them to varied con-
ditions of existence. Some are fitted for salt waters, others for those that
are fresh, some for residing at great depths, others for shallows, some are
mere surface swimmers pursuing their finny food, while others, although
similarly surface swimmers, live on minute organisms, and are themselves
pursued by their more powerful neighbours. Some like clear water, others
prefer that which is muddy, the rapid stream, the whirling eddy, the placid
lake or pond, or the mountain torrent, each possess their fish life, modified
according- to circumstances and frequently changing with the age of the
animal.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

Remarking generally on the external form of fishes we see a comparatively
large head attached directly to the trunk without the intervention of a neck,
while the body tapers off towards tho posterior extremity. The regions
into which they are externally divided are those of the head, the body or
trunk, the tail and the fins. In such forms as the perch or carp and' the
majority of species the head is separated from the body or trunk by the
gill-openings ; while the body and the tail have the vent as a division
between them. While external similarity in form is occasionally more
symptomatic of an agreement in the diet on which they feed than on their
zoological relationship.

In this class of animals modifications of form from what are seen in the
more typical perches or carps are exceedingly numerous. The body may
bo laterally flattened, as in the sole (plate cvi) strongly depressed as in the
skate (plate clxvi), shortened as in the sun-fish (plate cxlviii), elongated and
rounded as in the eel (plate cxlii), elongated and compressed as in the
scabbard-fish (plate li), shortened and rounded as in the globe fish (plate
cxlvii), or encased in square armour as in the box-fish Ostracion, or the pipe
fishes (plate cxliv). The head may, when compared with tho size of the body, be
enormously developed as in the frog-fish (plate xxix), or produced laterally
as in tho hammer-headed shark (plate cliv), or the snout may be leugthened

HEAD, MOUTH AND GILL-COVERS.

vu

into a weapon of offence as in the sword-fish (plate xlix), or the gar-fish
(plate cxxvi), while the tail-fin may be elongated for a similar purpose as
seen in the fox-shark (plate clvii), or the tail may be capable of prehension
as in horse-fishes (plate cxliv, fig. 7) . Some are possessed of organs for
attachment as seen on the top of the head in the sucking-fish (plate xxxix),
on the chest as in the lump-sucker (plate lv) and Liparis (plate lvi), or the
mouth may be formed for. this purpose as in the lampreys (plate clxxviii).
In Asia we see a few carps have an adhesive organ behind the lower jaw, as
in Discognathus, while some sheat-fishes as Pseudecheneis have them on the
chest, thus enabling them to reside in mountain torrents or rapid streams.

Fig. 1. Red Mullet.
h, maxilla ; c, mandible ; o, barbel ; h, pectoral fin ; i, ventral fin ; It, first dorsal fin ;
Z, second dorsal fin ; m, anal fin ; n, caudal fin ; q, lateral-line ; p, lateral-traneverse line.

The head is as a rule divided from the body by the gill-openings, while the
eye sub-divides it into two parts, that in front of this organ being known as
the ante-orbital and that behind it as the post-orbital region : in the former
is the snout wherein are placed the nostrils and generally the mouth. The
space between the orbits is known as the inter-orbital region, while that
below the orbit is the infra- or sub-orbital.

The mouth is subject to great diversity in its external direction, being
either horizontal, oblique, or almost vertical. In some it is' semi-circular or
even circular in the lampreys, and inferior in most of the sharks. It may
be very or only slightly protractile, and possess or be deficient in lips : and
sometimes provided with accessory tactile organs in the form of barbels
(fig. l,o).

The gill-covers or opercles in most bony fishes, consist of four pieces, the
posterior and upper of which is theopercle or operculum (page xv, fig. 3, 0),
in front of it the preopercle (fig. 3, p. 0), while of the two lower pieces
the posterior is known as the sub-opercle (fig. 3, s. 0), and the anterior,
situated below the preopercle (and sometimes rudimentary or absent), as the
inter-opercle (fig. 3, i. 0). Although in telcosteans, ganoids and holocephala

viii EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

among the elasmobranchs we perceive as a rule a single external gill opening
on either side, or even on the lower surface of the head, a different distribu-
tion is generally seen in the plagiostonies which possess from five to seven,
and among the cyclqstomes, which usually have seven as in lampreys,
although it may be single as in the hag ; in these latter, gill-covers as observed
in teleosteans, are. absent.

The body or trunk commences behind the head, and amongst most bony
fishes is somewhat wedge-shaped, passing by imperceptible degrees into the
tail or -caudal portion, the vent generally dividing the' two regions, but to
this rule there are many exceptions, for in certain genera the intestine opens
under the throat or near the caudal fin. In some slow-moving or bottom
fishes, the head as in the frog-fish, is depressed, while the -entire body 'may
be compressed into a flattened disc as among the flat-fishes or ple'uronectoids
which progress swimming on their sides. Or there may be lateral compression
conjoined to a short body and slow movements as in the dory or the sun-fish ;
or there may be lateral compression with a lengthening of the body as in the
band-fishes. The body is divisible into the back, the sides or lateral surfaces,
and the abdomen or the belly.

The tail or that portion which is continuous with the trunk, is similai'ly
divisible into the back, the sides and abdominal surfaces, while should a free
finless portion exist between'the hind fin of the back and the tail fin this is
termed the peduncle or free portion of the tail. Among the'Chondropterygii
the tail of some rays and skates appears as a slender appendage from the
body, while in some ground forms it seems to act mostly as a rudder.

The sldn may be scaled or scaleless, or enclosed in armoured plates, while
should a row of pierced scales pass along the sides they are known as the
lateral-line (fig. 1, q), the number of scales on which are generally important
as assisting in discriminating the species ; while the lateral transverse-row
(fig. 1, p) is of similar use.

The number of fins, as well as their relative positions on the body, are
subject to great diversity; the presence or absence of some, their situation,
and even their component parts furnishing characters often useful in classifi-
cation. If we examine the composition of the fins, we perceive among the bony
or teleostean fishes that they consist of two distinct characters of rays, the
first being spinate or having spines destitute of any tranverse articulations, and
each ending in a hard or sharp point ; the second being softer, more especially
termed rays, and being simple or composed of numerous pieces articulated
one to another by transverse joints, and which rays may have their outer
extremities branched or else simple and undivided. But irrespective of the
foregoing three forms, modifications are seen as in the outer ray of the
pectoral of many siluroids, or in the anterior dorsal rays as in the barbel
(plate cxxxi), where one or more may take on a bony character, but still

FINS. IX

during some period of their existence may be found to have the outer
end articulated. Long and delicate filaments are sometimes developed in
connection with fin-rays, and often indicate that the example is young,
as in a horse mackerel, Caranx gallus, wherein their length diminishes
with- age, similarly in the dory; still they are occasionally continued
through life, as in an Indian barbel, Barbus jilamentosus, and have likewise
been found existing' in fishes taken from the deep and nearly still abysses
of the ocean. Acanthopterygians are forms which, as a rule, possess
in their fins some true spines, which are absent in the soft-rayed or
malacopterygians.

The fins are divisible into such as are single and unpaired, hence termed
"azygous," as those along the median line of the back or dorsal, which
when present may be variously subdivided or modified ; the tail or caudal fin
as a rule is placed vertically at the posterior extremity of the caudal portion
of -the body, where it is seen in two very distinct types, in the generality of
fishes the two lobes being equal, when it is termed " homocercal," as in the
perch; whereas in the sharks and some other allied classes the vertebral
column is prolonged into the upper half of the caudal fin, rendering it
unequally-lobed .or. " heterocercal." The anal commonly commences behind
the vent, and passes along, the median line of the lower surface; it may be
as variously modified as the dorsal. These median or unpaired fins are
considered by some to be appendages to the skin, but believed by Balfour
to be the specialized and highly-developed remnants of a once continuous
lateral fin along either side.

But most fishes likewise possess two pairs of horizontal or paired fins, one
on . the breast or pectorals corresponding with the anterior extremities of
higher vertebrata; while the second or ventral pair, the homologues of the
legs or hind pairs of limbs, when present are variously placed, as under the
throat when they are termed jugular, as in the cod (plate lxxviii), below
the pectoral fins or.thoi-acic, as in the perch (plate i), or abdominal when
near the hind end- of the body, as in the carp (plate cxxix).

Fins may likewise alter with age, thus their proportionate lengths and
development in the young of abyssal or deep-sea fishes, as well as in pelagic
forms or those whose sphere of existence is usually restricted to the upper
waters of the open sea, would seem to be frequently very different to what
obtains in the adult, having caused the immature to be classed in a separate
genus from the same fish when it has attained to its full size. Thus the voung
of the abyssal Luvarus Ouvieri (plate xliii and vol. i, page 120), has been
described as Diana seviilunata. The pelagic sword-fishes (plate xlix and vol. i,
page 14.8) have in their earlier stages single, elongated, many-rayed dorsal and
anal -fins, but the anterior portions of both become atrophied' with age, while
the central rays disappear, thus leaving two fins in either position. In the pilot

X . EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

fish (plate xlv) the anterior dorsal fin of the fry becomes converted into
free spines in the adult. The black pomfret, Stromateus niger, when young
has ventral fins present, causing it to have been placed in a distinct genus,
Apolectus stromateus. "While in the paired fins Ave find in the pelagic
tunny (plate xxxvi) that the pectorals become elongated with age, and
Gill observes that in the apodal or forms without ventral fins the body is
eel-like or elongated. I have remarked that a variety of form exists in our
ten-spined stickleback (vol. i, page 245, plate lxviii, fig. 4), in which these
latter fins are entirely wanting.

Another mode in which fins change with age is owing to the spines, as of
the dorsal fin, not augmenting in length so rapidly as the soft rays, conse-
quently they may be comparatively shorter in the adult than in the young.
Even the soft rays in mature fish are commonly less in their proportionate
height to the entire length of the specimen than they are in the immature.
The same thing occurs in respect to anal spines, the second being sometimes
the longest in the immature, but becoming -shorter than the third in the
mature, which appears most frequently to take place when the second spine
is the strongest, augmenting in thickness while the third increases in length.
Occasionally there is an excess of a spine and a deficiency of a ray in the
dorsal fin, the anterior one_ of the latter having assumed a spinous character,
a not infrequent occurrence among the Sparidee : or several articulated rays
may be similarly changed. In some forms 'the number of rays, as in
the Cottidas, would seem occasionally to decrease as the species is found
further south. Spiny-rayed fish, preying upon their weaker neighbours,
appear to be more numerous in seas than in fresh waters, while in our inland
waters members of the carp and salmon families usurp their place, these
hitter being provided with articulated fin rays.

Fin rays when broken may again unite, if lost they may likewise be
occasionally reproduced, but often in an incomplete manner. Injuries to
the caudal portion of the body sometimes cause remarkable changes in the
form of the fin, thus in a sole (vol. ii, p. 40) will be found the description of a
specimen in which the caudal fin in being reproduced has become continuous
above and below with the vertical fins. In an elongated Coilia of the
Indian seas I have several . times seen that a forked caudal fin has replaced
the last fourth or fifth of the caudal portion of the body, which probably
had been lost by accident.

Not only do the component portions of a fin become greatly altered, but
the fin itself may be very dissimilar to what we find in a typical perch or
carp. Thus the dorsal fin is entirely absent in the electric eel, Gymnotu*,
of South America : it may be a long single fin, the front portion be spiny,
as in the sea-perch (plate v), or with only soft rays, as in the sole (plate cvi) ;
or the fin may be in two portions, the first being composed of spines, and

FINS. XI

the second almost entirely of rays as in the red mullet (plate viii), or con-
sisting of soft rays only as in the rock -ling (plate lxxxix) ; or the fin may
be divided into three parts as in the cod-fish (plate lxxviii) and many other
gadoids. The anterior portion of the dorsal fin may be in the form of free
spines as in some of the sticklebacks (plate lxviii), or the free spines may
be modified into tentacles as in the angler (plate xxix), or into an adhesive
apparatus as in the sucking-fish (plate xxxix) . Or the posterior portion of
the dorsal fin may be present in the form of free rays as in the tunny
(plate xxxv), or it may be simply a fold of skin containing fat as in the
salmon (plate ex), which in some conditions of embryonic or early life may
be observed to contain fin rays as in certaiu salmonoids and siluroids. When
spines are present in the dorsal fin they are usually in its anterior, and rarely
in its posterior portion ; but in one British form, the viviparous blenny, a
few are present with articulated rays anterior and posterior to them (plate
lxi). This fin may likewise unite with the caudal, the latter being continuous
with the anal, as observed in eels (plate cxlii). The spines and rays of
which fins arc composed can bo erected or depressed at will, while some
osseous and frequently posteriorly serrated rays or spines have a peculiar
joint at their base, which prevents their being depressed in a direct line, as
in the trigger fish (plate cxlvi).

The pectoral or breast fin may be absent as in some pipe-fishes, marine-
eels, &c, but when present is subject to many modifications and assists in the
performance of functions which at first sight would hardly appear to be
among its duties. Its position is behind the gill-openings, but its form
differs ; thus among the Pediculati, as the angler, it possesses a sort of arm
due to prolongation of the carpal bones, enabling its possessor to employ
the organ as a foot or arm, and thus adapting it for moving about at the
bottom of the sea ; similarly some of the goby family in tropical countries
are enabled to use this fin for progression over the moist mud. Or the
pectoral fin may be considerably elongated as in the flying-fish (plate exxviii),
by which it can be used as a parachute in order to pass through the air.
Portions of the fin may likewise be modified, thus some free rays may exist
at or near the base of the pectoral fin, and subserve the function of feelers
as in the mango-fish and other polynemi, or these free rays may be shorter and
thicker as in the gurnards (plate xxii), when they become not only useful
as a tactile organ but also for progression. In some forms this difference in
the character of the rays also exists when forming an undivided fin, thus in
the pectorals of blennies, as in the common shanny (plate lx, fig. 2), there are
thirteen rays, the upper seven of which are shorter and more elastic than the
lower six. Under certain circumstances these upper- rays are useful in
respiration, as in cases wherein a deficiency of air exists in the water, when
they are constantly in motion, sending a current towards the gills.. In very

Xll EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

young fish, as salmonoids prior to the absorption of the umbilical vesicle,
the gills remain more or less uncovered by the opercles, and these fins are
constantly employed in assisting respiration. The six thicker lower rays of
the shanny are thus enlarged and stiff, as they are constantly employed
resting upon or against rocks during progression.. In rays and skates this
fin is very largely developed.

The ventral .fins are those which are most frequently absent, not only
are they wanting in the large eel-like or apodal class, but occasionally their
absence may not even indicate the specimen being distinct from the form which
possesses them, as remarked upon respecting the ten-spined stickleback,
while their position when present is frequently found to be in widely
different localities on the body (see page ix ante). It is usually a narrow
fin consisting of but few rays, while these may be of most diverse appearance.
It may be restricted to a single spine useful for protective or aggressive
purposes as in the little sticklebacks (plate lxviii), or in the more developed
unicorn-fish, Triacanthus , of the Eastern seas ; or it may be a simple bony
ray having a broad extremity as in Bank's oar-fish (plate lxiv). Or its first
divided ray may be elongated into a tactile organ as in the- burbolt
(plate lxxxvii), or the two fins may be conjoined forming an adhesive sucker
as in the gobies (plate Hi), or reduced to stiff rays for progression as in the
blennies (plate lx).

The anal fin. may be absent, or if present subdivided as the dorsal, it
likewise when possessing spinous rays has them in the anterior portion of
the fin, while its last few rays may be in the form of finlets as observed
of the dorsal fin.

The caudal fin may be absent as in Bank's oar-fish (plate lxiv), indistinct
and often wanting as in some pipe-fishes (plate cxliv), single and with a
rounded posterior extremity, as in some gobies (plate lii), or with the central
rays rather elongated, giving it a lanceolate form as in some tropical gobies,
lunated or emarginate as in the grey mullet (plate lxvii), cut square at its
extremity as in the wrass (plate lxx). In most bony fishes the tail consists
of an upper and lower portion -which although rarely of exactly the same
size are still nearly so: it may be lobed as in the mackerel (plate xxxii),
while one or more of its rays may be prolonged : in one form of visitor to our
seas the fin is placed somewhat vertically at the end of the tail, as in the
vaagmaer (plate lxiii). In forms as Chondropterygians wherein the tail is
heterocercal the spine is continued into the prolonged upper lobe.

Locomotion is doubtless the main use to which the. fins of fishes are put,
but even in locomotion other forces are frequently or rather generally brought
into play to assist the fins, whether such is for the purpose of swimming, as
in the generality of this class, walking as in the angler or frog-fish, leaping
as the salmon while ascending rapids when the muscles of the tail are of

LOCOMOTION. X1U

great assistance, flying as in the flying-fish, floating as in the globe-fish
aided by the air sac, creeping under nets as the bass, springing over them
as in the grey mullet, retrograde wriggling as in congers or in some of the
pipe-fishes and which is carried " out solely by means of the muscular
system.

Animals having such diverse forms of bodies and such variously con-
structed fins as exist in fishes have as a consequence their powers of locomotion
modified. In such as are enclosed in bony cases as the box-fish or Ostracion
voluntary progress can only be made by means of the fins, whereas in almost
finless forms, as in some eels, movements of the body itself must be the
motive power. During rapid progression the paired fins are pressed closely
against the body, as may be observed in a mullet when pursued, or a
gurnard, but which latter widely expands its pectorals when swimming
leisurely along. Swimming forwards is principally effected in fishes by means
of lateral or right and left strokes of the caudal portion of the body aided
by the caudal fin, while gentle progression in the same direction may be
effected by slight undulations of the caudal fin-rays.. Flat fishes, as soles,
produce a forward motion by vertical or up-and-down strokes of the caudal
portion of the body. The flexible bodies of sharks may bend in more than
one curve when moving rapidly, which is mainly effected by powerful
lateral strokes. Among rays and skates the broad pectoral fins by means
of an undulating movement effect this ; while the angel-fish (plate clxiii),
has a sort of mixed motion. In some forms, as the horse-fishes or hippo-
campus, the dorsal fin rapidly undulated from end to end after the manner of
an archimedean screw, is the chief motive power. In eels, wherein fins
are very deficient, forward motion is effected by snake-like curves of the
body.

The pectoral fins are largely employed in keeping the body properly
balanced, or raising the head, and when one of these fins is removed, the
body falls over to that" side, or should both be thus treated, the head sinks :
it being largely developed in most sharks and rays, often compensating for
the absence of an air-bladder. It can assist in a forward movement by rapid
strokes towards its body, and likewise in a backward movement by means of
reversed or forward strokes. Also, as already observed, it may be enormously
developed as in the flying-fish and form a parachute enabling it to pass
through the air in order to escape from its enemies. The vertical fins likewise
assist the pectorals in maintaining the proper balance of the body/and.incline
it to one side when only one fin acts, or they are able to depress it by their
joint action.

The dorsal and anal fins are mostly restricted in their functions to increase
or diminish the extent of the lateral surface of the fish by means of their
being elevated or depressed, and so prevent violent lateral oscillations, or the

XIV

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

body being turned upside down. There is one exception however to this, us
the sun-fish, wherein the dorsal and anal fins by means of rapid undulations
assist the'fish in locomotion ; while a similar action has been observed upon
as seen in the dorsal fin df pipe-fishes.

Experiments made upon ordinary shaped osseous fishes have demonstrated
that should the dorsal and anal fins be removed they roll from side to side ;
if one pectoral is cut off they fall over to the side from which it has been
removed; if both, the head sinks : should the pectoral and ventral of one
side be gone, equilibrium is lost ; while removal of the tail fin interferes
with progression.

SKELETON.

The skeleton or endoskcleton of fishes differs widely in the various
orders, the bones being less dense in their structure than arc those of the
higher vertebrates. In some the skeleton is cartilaginous, in others fibrous,
or osseous, while two or more varieties of structure may co-exist in one
fish. Among those obtained from great depths in the ocean some at least
have their bony and muscular systems but feebly developed, and but loosely
connected together by ligaments.

Fig. 2. Common Perch.
a, premaxillary ; b, maxillary ; c, dentary ; d, orbit ; e, cranium ; /, interoperclc ; g, g,* vertebral
column; h, pectoral fin; i, ventral fin; k, first dorsal fin ; I, second dorsal fin; m, anal fin;
n, n,' caudal fin.

If we examine the skeleton of a teleostcan fish, as a perch, we see a
framework consisting of a vertebral or spinal column, a skull and fins. The
vertebral column consists of a varying number of bones or vertebra), the
bodies of which are excavated at each end, rendering them biconcave or
amphiccelous.* The cavity thus - produced by the apposition of two

* The vertebra; of the exotic bony pike are ' opisthocailous," or concave posteriorly and
convex anteriorly.

SKELETON.

XV

concave bones is covered in by connecting' ligaments, and filled with a
gelatinous substance, the remains of the notocord : consequently, clastic
balls of semi-fluid consistence exist between each vertebra, enabling them
to move very freely one upon another.

' The abdominal vertebra?, or those belonging to the trunk, have two
superior or dorsal processes, which pass upwards and coalesce, forming an
arch, the neural arch, which contains the spinal cord. At the summit of
this arch is a spinous elongation, the neural spine. Two transverse processes
generally pass outwards from the body of each vertebra, and to them ribs
are commonly articulated.

The caudal vertebrae, or those of the tail, are furnished with neural arches,
and spines as in the abdominal region, but well-developed transverse pro-
cesses are deficient, while along the inferior surface of the bodies of each
vertebra is an arch, similar to the neural arch on its upper edge, and this

Fig. 3. Skull of the Cod, Gadus morhua.
s, p, -Supra occipital ; /, Frontal; n, nasal; p, s, Para sphenoid; p,m, pre-maxillary ; m, max-
illary; d, Bentary; I, p're-orbital ; q, Quadrate; 7i,m, Hyo-mandibular; p,o, Pre-opercle; o 3 Opcrcle;
s,o, Sub-opercle; i,o, Inter-opercle; c,h, Cerato-hyal; b, Branchiostegous rays.

lower or haemal arch serves to convey blood-vessels, while from it springs
inferiorly a haemal spine.

Between the neural spines and the -haemal spines certain dagger-shaped
bones are inserted along the median lines of the body, and which arc
externally for the purpose of attaching the bases of the dorsal and anal fins.
The hindmost caudal vertebra, usually of small size, articulates posteriorly
with a fan-shaped bone, the hypu-ral, which along with the last neural and
haemal processes support the caudal fin. Among the plagiostomes the

Xvi SKELETON.

processes of the vertebrae are more soldered to the bodies, and not so well
developed.

The skull, or' that portion of the skeleton which is situated at the front
end of the body articulating posteriorly with the first vertebra, is destined
to enclose the brain as well as form the face. It varies much in form in
different families of fish, and contains too many component parts to be fully
discussed here, but a few remarks are necessary respecting such as more- or
less enter into the orbits, mouth and respiratory apparatus.

The suborbital ring of bones, or those which pass round the lower edge of
the eye, consist of several pieces, the anterior of which is generally the largest,
and termed the pre-orbital or lachrymal (fig. 3, I).

The mouth is formed on several plans. At the front edge of the upper
jaw in the middle line is a tooth-bearing bone, the premaxillary (fig. 3, p. m),
also termed the intermaxillary, which is continued backwards in the form
of a" flat process, which in some forms even extends so far as the middle of
the orbit. The premaxillary rests against the toothless maxillary (fig. 3, m),
with which it is- in opposition, and the two move together. There are many
modifications of this form of osseous structure of the upper jaw. Thus in
the salmon the dental portion of the premaxillaries is comparatively decreased
in size, and the maxillary likewise bears teeth.

The lower jaw or mandible consists of two branches or rami, one on
either side connected together anterioi-ly in the middle line by a ligament,
this portion being termed the symphysis. Each ramus consists of several
pieces, the largest which bears teeth being termed the dentary (fig. 3, d),
while a small one at the hind end of each is termed the articular and
articulates with the quadrate bone (fig. 3, q).

The hyoid arch is attached to the temporal bones by two slender styliform
ones termed stylo-hyoids; this hyoid arch being composed of a central and
two lateral portions. The bones'along the two branches commencing from
behind forwards are the " epihyal " to which the stylo-hyoids are attached :
the ceratohyal to which the branch'iostegal rays are attached at their inner
end, then two small bones termed basihyals, between which the small glos-
sohyal or os Unguis extends forwards to the tongue, while a single bone,
the urohyal, passes backwards. This last bone in some fishes extends some
way even to the union of the coracoid bones, thus constituting an isthmus,
separating the two branchial openings.

The five branchial arches, four of which bear gills (see page xlyii) and
one is destitute of them, are externally bounded by the hyoid arch ; while
inferiorly and along the median line they are attached to a chain of bones,
the basibranchials, which are situated above the urohyal and are anteriorly
connected with the body of the hyoid. These branchial arches pass
upwards, and are attached by ligaments to the under surface of the skull.

SCAPULAR ARCH VERTEBRA. XV11

The three anterior branchial arches are each composed of four pieces of
bone, which commencing from their inferior attachment are known as the'
hypobranchial, ceratobranchial, the epibranchial. In the fourth arch the
epibranchial is wanting, and superiorly the more expanded upper piece
which generally bears teeth, is known as the superior pharyngeal bone:
while the fifth arch is composed of the cerato-branchial only, and termed
the inferior pharyngeal.

The opercular pieces or gill-covers have already been referred to, the
most anterior or innermost articulating with the tympano-mandibular arch
of the skull. In some fishes as sharks, rays, and cyclostomes, no gill-
covers are present, as will be subsequently remarked upon.

The scapular arch which supports the pectoral fin is mostly joined to
the occipital bone, and according to Owen and Kitchen Parker, contains
the following bones commencing from above : the supra- scapular (post-
temporal), articulating with which is the scapular (supra-clavicular), and
attached to which is the coracoid (clavicular), while it is united below either
by suture or by ligament to the same bone on the opposite side. To this
last bone are attached two others, the radius and ulna (coracoid and
scapular), and two rows of small bones placed between the forearms and the
fin, or the carpals and metacarpals. Attached to the clavicular is a two-
jointed bone, the post-clavicular (epicoracoid).

The ventral fins are attached to a pair of triangular dagger-shaped bones,
the pubic.

Among the teleosteans there are numerous deviations from the percoid
and gadoid forms to which I have principally adverted, many of which will
be referred to in the following pages.

Among the elasmobranchs are to.be found examples in which the noto-
cord may be observed without any trace of transverse segmentation up to those
in which there are distinctly ossified vertebras. As examples of persistent
notocords may. be mentioned among the plagiostomes the six-gilled shark
(vol. ii, page 308), and the spinous shark (vol. ii, page 323) ; while among
the Holocephala the arctic chimosra (vol. . ii, page 286) commences to
develop rings in the sheath of the notocord. In the majority of sharks, as
the blue shark (vol. ii, page 389), the vertebras have become completely
divided one from another, the individual bones being amphiccelous, and a
cavity existing .through the centre of the body of each thus permitting an
unbroken continuity of the remains of the notocord. In some forms many
of the anterior vertebras coalesce together, while the cranium is more or
less in one piece.

Still further modifications occur in the cyclostomes (vol. ii, page 356),
wherein the notocord is not segmentated, but neural arches are represented
. by cartilages along either side of the spinal cord. In the lowest form or
Leptocardii (vol. ii, page 360) the type is exceedingly primitive.

b

XV111

MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

The chief masses of muscular structure in this class of animals are seen
the great lateral muscles of the body, generally four in number in teleosteans,
and which are arranged longitudinally, but divided by oblique tendinous
bands (fig. 5) of a gelatinous character (and which dissolve on boiling) into

Wz?

Fig. 4. Internal Organs or Carp.
br, branchiae or gills ; c, heart ; /, liver ; vn, vn', swimming bladder ; ci, intestinal tract ;
o, ovaries ; u, urethra ; ,vent; o, oviduct.

numerous flakes or semi-conical masses termed myocommas. These four
longitudinal layers of muscles have the tendinous bands directed much as
follows : the upper series passing downwards and backwards, the succeeding
layer downwards and forwards, the third downwards and backwards, and
the lowest downwards and forwards. These flakes are arched backwards,
being convex anteriorly. The number of tendinous intersecting bands
correspond with the vertebras into which they are inserted. The various
modifications observed in these muscles, and the systems employed for the
movement of the fins, the jaws, eyes, breathing, &c, it is unnecessary to
enumerate in this place.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

This is subject to very great variation, and the brain, which does hot fill
the cranial cavity in adults, is comparatively small in proportion to that of
the general mass of the body.

SLEEP. XIX

Does sleep or a periodical season of repose for the organs of the senses,
ever visit fish, or can it be that balmy slumber is to them unknown, is
a question we occasionally see broached. Hybernation during the winter
' months in cold latitudes, and aestivation during hot months in tropical
climates, is generally admitted, but not so simple sleep. Some authors
appear to hold to the view that, possessing no eyelids, fish are unable to
sufficiently shut out external influences, and cannot therefore bo supposed
to sleep. Mammals and birds, in short, are sometimes asserted to be the
only animals which are periodically visited by refreshing slumbers, while
such as are in a lower grade merely rest from time to time in their labours,
and withdraw themselves to some quiet nook where they may remain
undisturbed. If all fishes sleep it may be asked how do sharks, dolphins,
black fishes and pilot fishes follow ships long distances during many days
and nights ? On the other hand, if not sleeping, what are the basking
sharks and sun-fishes about, which permit the fishermen to get so close as to
drive harpoons into their bodies before they attempt to get away, or the pike
in fresh water that allows a noose to be slipped around its head?

Some years since Mr. Hughes gave an interesting account of how
he visited a rock pool at Tenby by candle-light, and noticed several small
fishes at the bottom, among them being the active and artful blennies and
rocklings. They lay perfectly still, not attempting to dart away to a quiet
corner, and permitted the hand to be introduced, when one by one all were
caught. These fish seemed either temporarily paralyzed by the light or so
sound asleep that their capture was effected with ease.

In rapid waters it has been suggested whether if fish sleep they use their
fins in order to keep their position while in a state of somnolence. In the
tanks of an aquarium I was able to observe a small ' ' golden tench " lying-
in a peculiar and apparently uncomfortable position ; its tail half was sup-
ported by a piece of raised rockwork, while its head was resting on the floor
of the tank, and the slightest amount possible of motion only conveyed to
the mind of an observer that he was gazing at anything but a dead
specimen. The succeeding evening I revisited the tench, and perceived the
little golden one as vigorous as its companions, all of which, with a single
exception, appeared to be leisurely enjoying their existence, either by
feeding or in the contemplation of the varied scenes which were constantly
passing in front of their glass enclosure. The solitary exception was
reclining on its back and scarcely moved, but on a closer scrutiny its mouth
could be seen to open every now and then, and the fish gave a short gasp ;
the next evening it was swimming about with its fellow-captives and busy
wallowing in the soft sand, some of which it took into its mouth and then
discharged again, and a third tench was now in a somnolent state.

In another tank in the same Institution wrasses could be seen sleeping in

6*

XX NERVOUS AND TEGUMENTARY SYSTEMS.

all sorts of curious positions, mostly at night-time, but likewise- occasionally
during tbe day, especially soon after they had taken a meal. These after-
dinner naps, as well as such as were indulged in at. night-time, appear to
be often passed in the same portions of the tank day after day, while the
positions assumed by the three-spotted wrasse are by no means less uncom-
fortable than such as are seen occurring among the tench. Blennies have
been observed to occupy the same bed-rooms night after night, while I can
only suppose that the little suckers, Liparis, sleep during the day-time when
they hide themselves in order to be able to move about during the night,
which appears to be their period of activity, as they then search for food.

Among the fishes of India which inhabit the fresh waters perhaps the air-
breathing snake-headed species gives us the best example of sleeping fish.
In the month of December a few years since, while investigating the
fisheries of Assam, I was with a party engaged in exploring the Sissera
River. We entered a canoe and cautiously ascended the stream. When about
three miles from camp all of a sudden our boatmen ceased pulling, and
pointed to an object lying in the water under the bank, whispering that it
was a large fish fast asleep. We stealthily approached and got within two
yards of the spot, when we easily saw a snake-headed morrul, Opliiocephahis,
about four feet in length, lying perfectly still and apparently fast asleep,
just on the surface of a deep pool in the stream. Our repeating carbine was
silently passed to our crack shot, he steadily raised it to his shoulder, took a
deliberate aim, fired, but we saw the fish no more. Since then I have
frequently seen these fishes in an apparently sleeping condition.

THIRST.

Living as these animals do in a watery medium it would appear that the
sense of thirst must bo unknown, or else that it is quenched by means of
endosmosis through the skin. Were this not the case it is difficult to
conceive how the salt water forms could satisfy such a longing.

TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

The skin or tegumentary system may be entirely or partially scaleless, or
should scales be present they may be partially imbedded in the skin, the
posterior or external portions of one not overlapping its neighbour, and
termed non-imbricated ; or they may overlap each other like tiles, when they
are termed imbricate. The powers of resistance against external violence is
augmented when hard substances enter into its composition, consequently
those fishes which are most liable to injury are defended by scales or plates,

SCALES.

XXI

Fig. 5. 1, Ctenoid scale from
perch ; 2, Cycloid scale from lateral
line of gold carp ; .3, Ganoid scales
from amblypterus ; 4, Placoid scales
from small-spotted dog-fish.

which latter may even constitute a dermal skeleton ; while it appears to be
commonly the case that siluroids are provided with spines for offensive
purposes, and fishes with electric organs are scaleless. . Scales as a rule have
their free edges directed backwards, to prevent their forming any impediment
in the water when swimming, and the different forms have been divided
into cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid, and placoid.

Scales on their surface may have fine con-
centric striations, passing parallel with their
outer edge, and others more strongly marked
radiate from- near their centres towards their
attached or front border.

Cycloid scales (fig 5, no. 2) are those desti-
tute of any coating of enamel, and with a
smooth or non-denticulated free edge. Cte-
noid scales (fig. 5, no. 1) differ in possessing
denticulations or teeth, often covering a tri-
angular space at their free extremity or being
merely restricted to the edge of the scale ;
these last if spiny, have been termed sparoid
scales, while the foregoing forms pass more
or less gradually one into the other; both forms may be present on
one species of fish. Ganoid scales (fig. 5, no. 3) are furnished with a
coating of enamel, mostly of a tessellated form, and often articulated
one to another. While placoid scales (fig. 5, no. 4) can be considered as
dermal growths or osseous scales, as seen in sturgeons, rays, and some
other forms of fish.

Scales of fishes increase in size or grow along with the body of the fish on
which they are placed : thus in the salmon or trout the adult has the same
number as the young, while they are imbricate to the same extent. The
skin consists of the outer layer or epidermis, below which is the true skin,
termed dermis or cutis. The epidermis is originally formed by cells, which
increase in numbers and constitute an outer and a deeper layer. The cells
in the outer layer gradually flatten, and become partially cornified ; while
the deeper or malpighian layer is in a more active state of existence, new
cells are constantly being formed, which push the older ones towards the
surface. The cutis or true skin is well supplied with lymphatics and blood
vessels, and has a more active vitality than the more superficial epidermis,
and it gradually protrudes into slight elevations, which are the rudiments of
scales ; these increase in size, and passing backwards carry with them their
covering of epidermis. At this time calcareous deposits are laid down in
the dermis, while the superimposed malpighian stratum on its lower side
secretes a hard enamel-like substance. Thus both a portion of the epidermis

XX11 TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM TOUCH.

and likewise of the dermis enters into the primary elements in the formation
of a scale. In some cases in which the scales are large they push through
the epidermal layer, becoming partly free, as seen in many ctenoid forms, as
perches and sparoids.

TOUCH.

Special organs of touch are developed in fishes in several different manners.
Some, as carps, have highly sensitive barbels arranged around their mouths;
they are likewise well seen in siluroids or sheat-fishes, which as a rule live in
muddy waters, and have mostly to obtain food .by means of the delicacy of
their power of sensation, while their organs of vision are but little developed
(page xxviii). Or these organs may possess more solid bases, but have still a
similar function, as in the sub-mandibular or hyoid barbels of the red mullet
(plate viii), or the modified maxilla of some sheat-fishes, or even the fin-
rays themselves, which for this purpose have occasionally long filamentous
terminations, as seen in the John Doree (plate xlviii), or be modified into
organs, not only for progression but likewise for sensation, as in the free
pectoral rays of gurnards (plates xxii to xxviii). Or these tactile organs may
be more essentially cutaneous, as the filaments on the snout of the sole
(plate cvi), or perhaps more, distinctly visible on the lemon sole (plate cvii) ;
while somewhat similar but larger filaments are found on the bodies of some
fish, as the angler (plate xxix). Even papillaa as round the mouths or on the
lips are highly sensitive, and as has been shown by Leydig and others they
are abundantly supplied with nerves.

The. lateral-line* consists of a series of tubes along either side of the bodies
of fish (page vii, fig. 1) and is often known as the muciferous system ; but
although from it mucous is excreted, it is essentially an organ for sensation,
and as such is variously modified. It is continued on to the head, where the
tubes are largely developed in many families, as the sciaanoid and cod-fishes ;
or may form several canals, as seen in the Arctic chimaara (plate cli). In
osseous fishes the inside of the canal of the lateral-line is lined with epithelial
cells, often differing in form in different families. Into this canal nerves
ramify, and either terminate in an expansion or anastomose with each other,
as in Plagiostomes. The simple tubes of Lorenzini are restricted to Plagio-
stomes, where their presence, due to their black colour, render them so
apparent in the skate (vol. ii, p. 337, pi. clxvi), they open at the surface of
the skin, do not anastomose one with another, are supplied with nerves, and
filled with a thick gelatinous substance, and may be tactile organs.

* Dcrcuni proposes to term it "the lateral sensory apparatus.

COLOURS. XX ill

COLOURS.

Intimately related to the tegumentary system and the composition of scales
is the subject of colour. Among the finny tribes we may perceive external
colours of the most varied description, some of which are permanent, many
transient, and others again of periodical occurrence. Some of these colours
are due to the influence of light, while they may vary in the same species,
owing to the character of the water which they inhabit; for should the latter
be opaque and muddy, they as a rule are darker than those obtained from
localities where it is clear, those in running streams are generally lighter
and brighter than when from stagnant pools, or from shallow pieces of water,
than from such as are deep, while fish captured- in dark caverns are often
destitute of both colour and vision.

Age and season likewise exercise an influence in this respect, as do also
the state of the health and temporary local emotions. In the very young
one sees but few markings or colours, but these rapidly develop themselves,
more or less distinctly, by the time/ or even before, the first breeding season
has been reached, when the brilliancy of the individual has often attained to
its maximum. This nuptial adornment is generally acquired a short time
prior to the breeding season, subsequent to which it usually disappears.
Some see in the colours of these creatures grounds for assuming the proba-
bility of the descent of many forms from some common ancestral progenitor ;
thus vertical bands are almost invariable in the young of the various trout,
salmon, and char. However, they are likewise present in many other
families, as Scombresocidcv , in which they are usually a diagnostic sign of
the immaturity of the individual. Large spots or blotches, especially when
surrounded by a light margin, are likewise a good reason for suspecting that
the individual has not attained its full size. We also see in some forms
longitudinal bands modified, two narrow ones taking the place of a single
wide one, or they may be broken up into blotches. Some fish which are of a
silvery colour in one district are spotted in another, and others which have
no marks on their bodies throughout their lives frequently have the colour
of their fins varying with age.

Pouchet and others have pointed out that the changeable tegumentary
colours of fish depend more especially upon two conditions. First, we have
iridescence effected by an interference with the rays of light, owing to the
presence in the scales of thin plates or ridges, and in these forms the tints
change with great rapidity in accordance with the angle at which they are
viewed : such lamellar colouring is common among insects, Crustacea, and
some fishes it is beautifully seen in the Dolphin, Conjphcena, and the scale
of a common herring furnishes a good example. Secondly, a distinct anato-
mical element, as chromatophores or colour-sacs, which are often highl

XXIV TEGUMENTAEY SYSTEM.

coloured, may be present and capable of changing their form under special
influences, which are apparently directly connected with impressions of
colour received by the eye and brought about by the reflex action of the
nervous system. Under the heading of Pleuronectida3 (vol. ii, p. 1) remarks
will be found how these flat-fishes rapidly change their colour on differently
coloured bottoms, thus obtaining the protection of concealment by adaptation
of colour.

The chromatophores or pigment cells are seen in the early stages of the
eggs of fishes, but as observed by Agassiz, in some we have even two colour
elements in the older stages, immediately before the young fish is hatched,
viz. the black and yellow ; still in the majority of cases the black alone is
present, the yellow element appearing subsequently, and last of all the red.
Pouchet considered the blue pigment merely a dimorphic condition of the
red pigment ; the same may also be said of the green. And with the
growth of the fish the capacity of the chromatophores for expansion rapidly
augments.

In addition to the chromatophores another set of bodies termed
iridocytes, and more or less analogous to excessively thin laniiuas, have been
observed situated near the surface. By simple combinations of the action of
the red, yellow, and black chromatophores with the iridocytes are obtainable
all the colours producible in fish. These result mainly from expansion
near the surface, or retraction into an inferior layer of the chromatophores,
which thus mixed with the yellow and red, or with the iridocytes at greater
or less depth suffice to produce the variations of colour.

These pigment cells are likewise said to involuntarily expand owing to
external irritation, as from the muscles of a fish convulsively contracting a
short time prior to death, thus accounting for the rapidly changing tints in
some which are shown subsequent to the period of capture ; and the satiny-
red skin of the red mullet is in some places thus produced by fishermen
who scale their fish soon after their being captured.

Its appears evident that the influence of light is mostly felt through the
eye. Pouchet found- that turbots if blinded did not change colour, but those
not deprived of sight did: and young -hybrid salmonidse raised at Howietoun
.in which vision was more or less deficient, were observed to be generally lighter
in colour than their fellows, and their fins to become red as they grew older.
Whether the degeneration of the eye perceived in cave fishes and those of
the deep sea is due to dimness of this organ or an effect of hereditary trans-
mission has yet to be shown. A not infrequent change in some fresh-water
forms is a yellow colour taking the place of the original tint : thus the
normally dull greenish tench may be seen of a brilliant orange yellow,
termed leuccethiopism or' xanthochroism. So may likewise the gold carp,
although this latter when in a wild state in China is' of a dull green. The

LUMINOSITY. - XXV

temperature of the water, and mixing" iron, tan, or gall nuts has also been
found to induce this change of colour (see vol. ii, p. 167). The yellow
colour is due to incipient albinism, for the chromatophores which normally
contain dark ingredients are here filled with yellow pigment, or the first
step towards an entire loss of colouring matter when they become albinos.

Dr. Stark observed that if fish are kept in glass vessels of various colours
such occasions a tendency to their assuming the colour of the vessel in
which they reside, which would aid them in concealment. Mr. Nesbit
concluded that light merely modifies an existing pigment which is absent in
pink or albino fish, but which it is powerless to manufacture.

The colour of the flesh may be influenced, as in other groups of animals,
by the food consumed, minute crustaceans, as gammari are reputed to colour
that of the salmonidae : while white flesh is occasionally the result of
insufficient food. Ill-health similarly has an etiolating effect.

LUMINOSITY.

Another subject closely connected with the tegumentary system is the
existence of certain metameric organs. There are some pelagic or deep-sea
fishes, as Argyropelecus (plate cix, fig. 1), Stemoptyx, Icldhyococcus, Maura-
licus, Gonostoma, Ohauliodus, Stomias, &c, which possess luminous organs
of a circular form, some being as impressions, others as slight prominences
of the skin. A British form exists in the " pearl-sides" of Yarrell, Maurolicus
Pennantii (plate cix, fig. 2), which is Pennant's Argentine. These brilliant
spots may be present along the entire length of the abdominal surface or
even be seen on the head, but their uses have been subject to much
speculation. M'Culloch remarked that, considering at 800 or 1000 feet
depth the light of the sun ceases to be transmitted in the ocean, can animal
luminousness be a substitute for that light ? May it not be the means of
enabling its possessor to discover its prey or for its fellows to find one
another ? Perhaps a partial confirmation of this view exists in the fact that
fishes living at great depths or dark places^ as in the Mammoth Caves of
Kentucky or the recently discovered caverns in Algeria, are found to be
destitute of eyes; but they have no luminous organs, while the deep-sea
forms which possess them have large eyes. This difference would seem
to lend strength to the view that these organs may be for the use of
the individuals which are furnished with them, for where no eyes exist these
organs are absent.

A few years ago it was advanced that these spots were accessory eyes,
possessing a species of lens posterior to the cornea, and a chamber behind
the lens containing fluid and having a dark lining, which may serve as a
retina : the second form shows a simple glandular structure from which light

XXVI TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

may be emitted. In the second form it is evident that this organ could not
be employed for vision, being simply glandular, and possibly used to give
light, acting as a sort of lantern, the function being probably under the
control of the will.

Professor Bernhardt, in 1853, observed on the Astronethes jieldii, Val.
common in the Atlantic Ocean, between 23 deg. and 6 deg. N. latitude
a fish which possess lenses in these organs. It was only after sunset
that he discovered this fish in a drag-net. It is solely at that time
that the surface of the ocean begins to be crowded by vast swarms
of Pteropoda and numerous Crustacea, and possibly the fish searches
for food among them, following them into greater depths during the day-
time. " In two instances I was so fortunate as to catch the fish alive, when
I saw that it sent forth two strong and vivid greenish lights, which inter-
mitted momentarily and ceased altogether when the fish died. As the two
individuals only lived a few minutes after being taken out of the net, and as
the luminous appearance only showed itself distinctly in the dark, it was not
until I procured a second specimen, a number of days after the first was
obtained, that I ascertained with certainty, that the light radiated -from a
spot in the forehead, a little before the eyes, starting, as it were, from thence
along the back as far as the first dorsal fin : all the rest of the body remained
perfectly dark. ' On examining the whitish speck in the specimen preserved
in spirits, from whence the light radiated, a cellular tissue is found underneath,
or rather within the skin, consisting of longish cells or meshes, filled with
an apparently fatty substance. No doubt this is the source of the phosphoric
light, although I have not been able to trace the substance, at least not in
an aggregate form, beyond the eyes, so as to account for the extent back-
wards of- the phosphorescence."

There is likewise connected with the question of sight in fishes the subject
of the luminosity of other animals residing at great depths, and affording
what is known as abyssal light. Along our coasts luminosity of the surface
of the sea may be seen during our warm autumn months, among the exhibitors
of which are numerous small jelly-like animals more especially the Noctlluca.
In the account of the voyage of the " Porcupine/' Thompson states, that
towards the north of Ireland in. some places nearly everything brought up
seemed to emit light, and the mud itself was full of luminous sparks (p. 98).
Star-fishes and the larger invertebrates all exhibited this marvellous property
in the Faroes (p. 148). Nordenskiold found during the polar nights in
Spitsbergen in the snow-sledge a number of almost microscopic Crustacea
giving evidence of their existence by an intense bluish-white light which
was emitted as soon as the sledge was touched, causing at every step a
bluish-white flame to burst forth.

Few or none who have made voyages to the tropics but must have been

LUMINOSITY. XXV11

struck with admiration at tlic luminous radiata and mollusca, while it has
been observed that an increase in brilliancy occurs when these animals are
in motion. Dr. Guppy has commented upon a small shrimp in the South
Atlantic which constantly emits a light from its eyes, while long fila-
mentous organs are likewise to be met with showing apparently a brilliant
type of phosphorescence. Among the many curious forms of development
of these tactile organs one is seen on a fish found at the depth of 2700
metres in the Mediterranean Eustomias obscurus, Vaillant, in which the
tactile organ takes the appearance of a long filament, which is placed
underneath the lower jaw, and ends in an inflated and rayed knob-like
phosphorescent mass. Some marine invertebrates emit a mucous fluid
possessing luminous properties which are not immediately lost when mixed
with water or other fluids. It is not long since I heard of a gentleman
having purchased a lobster, which he took with him wrapped in paper,
when going by train from Southampton to his house, which was some hours
distant. On arrival his lobster was found to have been kept quite long
enough, and having been removed from its paper wrapper was consigned to
the cook. Some hours after, on going into the dark room wherein the
paper wrapper had been left, he was startled at seeing a dull blue light
coming from the table. Cautiously advancing, he gave the uncanny object
a poke with a stick, and then found- it was the piece of paper which had
inclosed the lobster, and doubtless had become covered with its mucous
secretion.

Irrespective of this locally-circumscribed luminosity the luminosity of
animal substances must be slightly touched upon. General luminosity
in fishes may be seen at two distinct periods (1) during life, (2) after
death. The shark is one of the former which has the reputation of
being luminous, the light being believed to come from its abdominal,
surface. Shoals of fish are said to frequently emit flashes of light
which are visible even at great depths. The sand-launce in some locali-
ties is said to be sought for by moonlight, as at night-time their
silvery brilliancy is more striking than it is by day. M'Culloch also
enumerates mackerel, pollack, whiting, pilchards, sardines and gar-fish as
being sometimes accompanied by these lights. Collett speaking of the
Aphia pellucida remarks that in the males in full breeding almost every
part of the body has a faint brownish light, although this is nowhere col-
lected into larger dots, but is more distinct along the transverse impressions
of the muscles. Secondly, we find this general luminosity often exists for
some time in dead fish, commencing a short time subsequent to death and
continuing until decomposition sets in. In the forms which most rapidly
decompose luminosity is most quickly developed. This is well seen in the
cod family, and the basket containing these fish kept for feeding the

XXV111 THE EYE.

seals at the Westminster Aquarium might have been frequently observed in
a dark corner of the building emitting a very suspicious-looking blue light.
This luminous appearance emanates from every part of the animal, whether
at the edges of the scales or on its internal surface when cut open, which,
if closely examined, is found to emit a slight moisture that can be scraped
off, diffused in water, and still remain luminous as observed among inver-
tebrates.

VISION.

Fishes, as a rule, possess two eyes, symmetrically placed one on either
side of the head, while they are undoubtedly large as compared with what
obtains in other vertebrates, or with the extent of surface in their own
bodies. Their size, however, is modified in accordance with local surround-
ings and their habits. Some frequent muddy waters, where vision would
be of less service than tactile organs ; in such cases appendages for feeling,
as barbels, are more developed than eyes. Others again are restricted to
living in dark caves where rays of light can hardly enter. Irrespective of
the foregoing cause of atrophy there are many forms residing in the dismal
abysses of the ocean where light is unable to penetrate, for solar i*ays are
computed to be lost at a depth of 200 fathoms or less, while in the fresh
waters of the Lake of Geneva, Professor Forel ascertained that at 30
fathoms photographic paper was entirely unacted upon. Another modifying
influence is whether the habits of the fish are nocturnal or diurnal, the
former, unless residing in dark places, requiring the larger organs of vision.

Eyes likewise may be only rudimentally developed,' as in the Amphioxua
or the Myxine, wherein they appear as mere dark specks, but still have a
nerve distributed to them. Or they may have retrograded to so considerable
'an extent- as to be entirely absent in some forms which have taken up their
abodes in dark caverns, but even here the lens and other constituent
portions of the eye may usually be detected, whereas examples of the same
species living outside are provided with fully-formed eyes. The optic nerve
may degenerate, or disuse may occasion degeneration, but loss of light does
not necessarily end thus.

The eyes of fishes are mostly situated in orbital cavities, where they rest
upon a cushion of adipose or gelatinous substance. Their direction is
subject to considerable variation, for although usually placed laterally, as
in the perch, salmon, or carp, they are not invariably so. The star-gazer,
Uranoscopus, has them on the upper surface of its head, where they are
situated somewhat close together. Many East Indian siluroids or sheat-
fishes, as Pseudeutropius or Ailia, have them even placed almost under-
neath and directed obliquely downwards and outwards. The sides of the
head may be laterally elongated, having these organs situated at their outer

VISION. . XXIX.

extremities, as in the hammer-headed shark, Zygccna malleus. They may
be on elongated peduncles capable of retraction, as in some of the mud-
hunting gobies, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmm , and their allies, which in
tropical countries pursue insects and other objects suitable for food over the
soft mud, iuto which they themselves eveu disappear when chased by birds
or other enemies. While we have instances on our own shores in the
blennies, which appear to observe objects as well with their heads out
of the water as when submerged in the sea, and they move their eyes
independently one of the other. In the sunfishes (Orthagoriscus) there exists
a circular palpebral fold provided with a sphincter, while some sharks have a
nictitating membrane. Among the flat-fishes (Pleuronectidce) are remarkable
modifications.- In the very young as they emerge from the egg the fry
swims on edge similarly to other fishes, but after a longer or shorter period
the eyes are both found on the coloured side of the body. These two eyes,
even in the adult, can be moved independently of each other. That the
eyes in their earliest state are situated similarly to what obtains in the
remainder of the class of fishes is very interesting, as tending to show how
they have in course of time changed their position a view still further
confirmed when we observe how it is not invariable for the two eyes to be on the
right and left side of all members of the same species. (See vol. ii, page 1-4.)
Among the most perfectly constructed eyes in bony fishes the eyeball is
rarely quite spherical in shape, but presents the appearance of a flattened
bulb and a short axis. Among the semi-osseous forms, as the elasmo-
branchs, it is supported by, as well as moves upon, a cartilaginous peduncle
passing from the walls of the orbit.

The optic nerve may perforate the eyeball in its axis or obliquely to one
side ; for, should the eye be protrusible to ever so small an extent, it neces-
sarily follows that the optic nerve must either be situated in a position where
protrusion of the eyeball would not stretch its delicate structure, or it must
be slightly bent or curved, in order to permit extension ; compressed as it
penetrates the sclerotic and choroid coats, subsequently it expands, ending
in the retina which lines about two-thirds of the inner chamber, leaving,
however, a margin, where its free borders meet, and through which passes a
fold of the choroid, sometimes having a dark pigmental layer. This portion
of the choroid, termed the falciform process, pushes before it a fold of the
hyaloid membrane or tunic of the vitreous humour. The falciform process
generally extends to the capsule of the lens, to which it is firmly attached
by a substance termed campanula Halleri.

The outermost covering of the eye, or sclerotic capsule, is of varying
thickness, fibrous or bony in osseous, and cartilaginous in semi-osseous or
chondropterygian forms, as well as in sturgeons. Owing to the considerable
interspace existing between the sclerotic and choroid membranes, and which

.XXX THE EYE.

is filled up with adipose or areolar tissue, the eye is, as already observed,
rarely quite spherical. The sclerotic may even be bony in some well-ossified
forms of fishes, the bony portion usually consisting of 'two hollow half
spheres, having a hole posteriorly in the centre, for the entrance of the
vessels and nerves proceeding to the eye, while its anterior or outer emargi-
nation supports the cornea. In the swordfish Xiphias, and in the Dipnoid
Geratodns, these two bony half spheres are confluent into one, having the
central foramen patent for the entrance of the vessels and nerves.

The cornea, which is as a rule nearly flat, is a modified portion of the
corium, in some forms of fishes, at least in their earliest stage, as the shanny
Blennius pholis, at 1^- inches in length, the protrusion of the cornea equals
one-fifth of its diameter, and in a little rock goby (Gobiiis paganellus) at
0*9 inches in length, the convexity to the diameter is as one to four. The
choroid tunics are three the outer, or membrana argentea, said to be
occasionally absent, and which is composed of acicular crystals, reflecting a
brilliant lustre, and often giving great brilliancy to the outer edge of the
iris ; the middle tunic, or membrana vasculosa, and also termed Haller's
membrane, is ramified with blood-vessels, while it supports the ciliary
nerve ; the inner tunic, or membrana picta, also termed uvea, is made up of
hexagonal and usually dark-coloured pigment cells. The ciliary processes
are rarely developed, but the ciliary ligament is always present.

The iris is formed by a prolongation of the choroid membranes, having a
ciliary ligament at its base which overlies the convex border of the sclerotic.
It is a thin, contractile curtain, situated behind the cornea, and suspended
in the aqueous humour. Its muscular structure is but feebly developed in
most fishes, consequently its capacity for dilating and contracting is not very
great. Its centre is perforated by the pupil for transmission of light to the
interior of the eye. This pupil is mostly large and circular, but in some forms
is vertically or horizontally elliptical, as in the majority of sharks,' or it
may even be quadrangular, as in Galeus. Occasionally a veil or flap descends
from the edge of the iris at the upper portion of the pupil, as may be seen
in some pleuronectoids as the turbot, the viper weever fish of our coast,
or the more tropical crocodile fish, Platycephalus, or in a few rays as
the Homelyn (vol. ii, page 324). All these forms live more or less in the
sand, or at the bottom of the sea, and to them a large amount of light is
evidently unsuited, consequently they are provided with an extensible and
retractile veil, which can regulate or entirely obstruct raj^s entering from
above. In the tropical Anableps the cornea, or window of the eye, is crossed
by an opaque horizontal band, and the iris appears to possess two pupils, a
subject I shall again have to advert to. On dissection, however, it is found
that in reality the pupil has a lateral flap of the iris on either side, which,
although they cross each other, are not conjoined.

VISION. XXXI

The retina is the delicate nerve structure upon which the image of
external objects is received. Its posterior or external stratum consists of a
cellular base supporting on its external or concave surface a layer of nerve
cells, the filaments from which pierce the several superimposed granular
layers, the innermost of which consists, as stated by Owen, of interblended
twin -fusiform corpuscles . . . each of which is surrounded by a circle of
cylindricules. Over this latter the nerve fibres radiate without anastomosing,
and terminate in free ends at the base of the ciliary zone. A well-defined
raised rim or bead runs along the anterior margin of the retina, and also
the edge of the falciform slit.

The aqueous humour in the anterior chamber is very small in amount,
owing to the constricted extent of the cavity occasioned by the projection
into it of the crystalline lens. But little fluid is necessary to float the free
border of the iris, while, due to the watery localities fishes inhabit, no
refractive aid is required to be placed anterior to the lens in the globe of the
eye. The vitreous body which fills up the greater portion of the cavity of
the ball of the eye is of firmer consistence than observed in other vertebrate
animals.

The choroid gland is a vascular ganglion of a deep red colour, resembling
in form a bent magnet ; it is placed between the outer and middle coats of
the choroid, and close to the optic nerve where it pierces those structures.
It is composed of parallel and closely placed arteries and veins, the supply
of arterial blood for which is received from the pseudobranchiaa, and it
consequently is wanting in osseous fishes in which pseudobranchioe are
absent, as sheat fish, carps, eels, &c. But in the chondropterygians and
ganoids there is no choroid, whereas pseudobranchia? are present.

The crystaline lens is nearly or quite spherical, very firm, having a dense
nucleus, and steadied in its position by the falciform process. It projects
into the anterior . chamber of the eye which it almost fills, while it nearly
pressess against the flat cornea leaving but little room for any aqueous
humour. The refractive power of the lens is maximized by its spherical
form, to compensate for the deviation from the spherical form of the eyeball
produced by the flattening of its front portion. The fibres of the lens con-
verge at its two opposite ends, each having marginal teeth like those seen in
a cog-wheel, and by which they interlock with one another. In the Anableps
previously referred to, a slight bulging or excrescence of the -lens occurs
opposite to what appears like the lower pupil of the eye. Inhabiting as fish
do a watery medium, the heed of a lachrymal gland is scarcely obvious ; still an
instance of its existence in one of these creatures has been recorded. Situated
below the anterior corner of the eye is a foramen, through which is a
communication with the rudiments of one in the' form of a blind sac placed
between the maxillary bone and the muscles of the cheek.

XXXU THE EYE.

In inost teleostean or bony fishes, and likewise in the sturgeon or
Acirpenser, a fibrous ligament attaches the sclerotic to the walls of the orbit.
As a rule the external muscles of the eyeball are similar to what exist among
the higher vertebrates, consisting of four straight and two oblique pairs. .

Fishes eyes present a great variety as well as extent of outer coverings,
some portions of which are transparent while others are opaque. Skin, in
accordance with where it is situated, may have different offices to fulfil, for
which purpose it may be necessary to be either opaque or transparent, thick
or of a very thin structure, and that which covers the eyes of fishes may be' in a
single or double layer, either or both of which maybe extensively modified.
The skin which covers the eye is commonly thin in substance and transparent in
character, being modified in order to suit altered conditions as it passes across
and covers the front of the ball of the eye, and its glass window known as
the cornea, through which all rays of light must necessarily pass to obtain
access through the pupil to the retina. This skin is essentially a continuation
of that which covers the contiguous parts of the head being reflected from
off the walls of the orbit on to the front of the eye, where it is more or less
firmly adherent to the cornea. But as it is necessary for the ball of the eye
to be capable of being turned in various directions it is obvious that some
means must be found to prevent the skin arresting its movements, which it
would do were it to pass by the shortest cut from the bony orbital walls
to the front of the eye to be there adherent to its surface. This is provided
for by its being loose as it passes this gap on to the eye, and being so it does
not impede any movements of the globe. This loose or baggy portion which
surrounds the eye from the orbital edge to that of the transparent cornea is
the portion which after death appears white and opaque, for it is modified
skin that takes on this appearance, and often due to its being sodden. The
foregoing descriptions briefly refer to such forms as we commonly meet with,
and which possess but a single layer of skin across the front of the globe of
eye, but in this skin during life no sufficient amount of colouring matter
exists to occasion opacity, neither are scales present.

In the next class of fishes to which I shall refer, there still exists but a
single layer of skin passing across the front of the globe of the eye, but
this is modified, as shown in the mackerel, 8comber scomber, wherein what
have been termed " adipose lids " are present on either side of the eye, and
covering a portion of its ball. If these adipose lids are examined it is found
that the one which covers the anterior portion of the eye is attached
inferiorly to or is a continuation of the skin on the front of the preorbital bone,
and is consequently situated anterior to or overlapping the base of the
posterior lid, which is attached to the posterior edge of the preorbital. The
use of this will be readily understood, because in this manner any current
of water would pass backwards over a smooth surface, which would not be

VISION. XXX111

the case were the posterior lid overlapping the anterior one. These adipose
lids are formed by a single layer of skin having been continued from the
contiguous parts of the head, over the front of the eye, but bulging anteriorly
and posteriorly; these bulging -or loose portions become a double fold,
between the layers of which fat may be found. Sars, who paid particular
attention to the character of these lids, as seen in the living fish, remarked
that in the earlier part of the year off Norway they are much more opaque
than they are later on, due to the fish in these earlier months beiug fatter,
and that it is not until after they have spawned that the fat becomes absorbed,
and as a consequence the lids are transparent.

There are also certain classes wherein a double layer of the skin may
partially or entirely cross the front surface of the eye, among which I propose
to allude to the well-known " blind " or " bib," Gad us licscus. In this fish,
belonging to the cod family, the orbital layer of skin may be popularly
described as splitting into two layers, the innermost passing on to the eye
and becoming attached to its front surface, as I have already described ; but,
due to the skin being in two layers, a sort of hollow bag is present, covering
the front of the eye, and^ this the fish appears to be able to distend under
certain conditions. One of these conditions is on its being drawn up
from great depths in the sea, at which time {due to the decreased pressure
of the water) its gases expand and this cavity becomes " baloon-shaped,"
or, should fluid be inside it, like a "bleb" or blister. The' same
appearance now sets in as described in the loose and baggy portion of
the single layer around the globe of the eye, with this addition that in the
"bib" the entire structure of the bag in front of the eye becomes of an opaque
or white sodden character, and this may be seen either in the living fish
or after its death. The mangoe-fish and other Polynemi of the tropical
seas have a thick layer of transparent skin passing entirely across the
eye, while in the common mullet (Mugil) a vertical and elliptical opening
is present.

Not only have we a transparent skin covering the eye -as described,
but also we may have it only partially thus modified, or largely covered with
opaque substances. Thus in the snipe- fish, Centriscus, which has been
captured on the British coast, some minute scales are present on the outer
fourth of the skin covering the globe-of the eye, except in its anterior portion ;
here they would mostly serve for protection from direct injuries. Some
forms have a species of almost fixed eyelid along the upper portion of the
eye, consisting of thickened and coloured skin, which may or may not be
furnished with rudimentary scales. This is commonly perceived in such as
reside on or near the sand, and are mostly bottom-feeders, and is very
probably protective ; in these forms of fish the iris or pupil is sometimes
unlike the round or oval shape whicn is generally seen. As an example, the

c

XXXIV THE EYE.

weever or sting-fish, Trachinws, has this modification of the upper eyelid,
and so also has the tropical crocodile-fish, Platycephalus, in the last of which,
however, very rudimentary scales are also perceived, and the iris has two
tongue-like excrescences.

This opaque upper lid, evidently used as a protection, is found in the
flat-fishes, Pleuroilectidce, while another modification may likewise be present.
If the eye of a turbot, Rhombus maximus, is examined it will be seen, that
not only does thick opaque and coloured skin cover its upper and lateral
portions, but, being insufficient to protect the eye from the irritation of the
sand wherewith it covers itself, it is able to raise a thick lower eyelid, or else
to depress the transparent portion of the globe of the eye below this fold of
the skin. In the sun-fish, Orthagoriscus, as previously observed, we find a
circular palpebral fold, provided with a sphincter muscle.

Passing on to the rays and skates, which are sand-loving forms, we still
see immovable and opaque skin covering the upper portion of the eyeball ;
but, irrespective of this protective modification, there are other means which
can be used in order to prevent too much light obtaining entrance through
the pupil. This is effected by certain veils or processes, of different forms,
which can be employed to cut off any excess of light. I have already
alluded to the teleos.tean crocodile-fish, Platycephalus, which lives in the
tropics, and resides at considerable depths, but often has to. ascend to near
the. surface in order to obtain its food. Here we find two processes of the
iris which can be employed as curtains the upper and larger exists along
the upper margin of the pupil, and the smaller along the lower. So far as
I have observed, it is in these ground-feeders which occasionally ascend
towards the surface, from a dull into a bright light, that the upper veil or flap
of the iris is developed, while in some a lower veil may likewise co-exist. The
same modification is perceived in many of the Elasmobranchs ; thus in the
homelyn-ray, Rata maculata, we see on looking through the transparent
cornea that the pupil is not circular, but possesses a veil that has been aptly
compared to a vine-leaf (vol. ii, p. 334), provided with twelve digitations, that
can be let down and thus cut off some or all the rays of light.' Muscular
fibres, which anastomose with each other, pass downwards along this flap,
and into each of the digitations which descend from it.

The lens itself may likewise be modified, as in the Anableps, the eye of
which is divided externally into two unequal portions by a sort of band of
opaque skin, which crosses its transparent cornea from one side to the other.
This fish, which usually swims with its head partially out of the water, thus
shows an anomaly that at first seems very puzzling, for why should it be
furnished with an opaque band precluding any rays of light entering the
orbit along a central horizontal line ? On looking through the cornea it
appears as if this opaque band divided two pupils, preventing any rays

TASTE. XXXV

passing into the space between which these two pupils are impervious, and
where they might stimulate the iris. But on removing the cornea it is seen
that, as already described, two lateral flaps of the iris appear like two small
tongues, which start one from the anterior border of the circle of the pupil,
and the other from its posterior border ; the two approach each other and
touch or even overlap, and here the one lies over the other. These tongues
overlapping, it follows that the circular pupil is subdivided into two openings,
the upper of which is the larger. It is across where the two tongues overlap
one another that the opaque band of skin crosses the cornea. The crystalline
lens is placed behind this singularly subdivided pupil, and is not perfectly
round, as seen in the lenses of most fishes, but a little convex projection
bulges out on its lower edge, which corresponds to the inferior orifice of the
pupil. It would seem as if this fish, possessing a sort of double eye, has to
keep a watch on the waters below through the lower pupil, and in the air
above through the upper; while the band of skin which crosses the eye
does so where the head of the fish is on a level with the upper edge of the
water.

Doubtless the foregoing account of fishes' eyes might be largely
increased, and many more illustrations given did space permit, but the fore-
going are sufficient for the purpose of pointing out that the skin of fishes'
eyes may be used as a protection,- when it is scaled, coloured, or even
transparent.

TASTE.

The sense of taste in fishes is generally considered to be but slightly
developed, a conclusion to a great extent arrived at because most fish bolt
their food, and but few have molar-formed teeth capable of mastication. On '
the other hand, the angler, line-fisherman, and pisciculturist perceive that
they will ravenously devour one kind of food, rejecting another, that they
have their likes and dislikes, which must have some connection with the
density of the object or else with its taste.

The glosso-hyal bone does not as a rule support' a tongue or organiza-
tion of soft parts specially devoted to the development of the special
sense of taste; as, when present, it is not infrequently found to be furnished
with teeth, and deficient of the muscles and soft parts so conspicuous in the
tongues of the higher vertebrates. In the sturgeon, irrespective of papillae
for taste on the tongue, branches from the glosso-pharyngeal nerve have
been traced to the branchial arches and palate where possibly the sense
of taste resides. In carps on the roof of the palate is a thick, soft, vascular,
and highly sensitive mass, which becomes thinner anteriorly while it is

c *

XXXVI OLFACTORY .ORGANS.

supplied by branches from the glossopharyngeal nerves. Schulze (1862 and
1867) assigned to the cyathiform corpuscles of fishes, functions identical with
those of the gustatory bodies of the mammalian tongue. Jourdan (Comptes
Rendus, 1881, p. 743) confirmed the foregoing, and in gurnards found these
bodies upon the tongue, and suggested they might be present in the buccal
mucous membrane of most fishes. Also that among the nervous terminations,
described by M. Joubert as organs of touch, we must distinguish those
which possess cyathiform bodies from those which are destitute of them, and
that these bodies are gustatory papilla?.

SMELL.

That fishes possess the sense of smell has long been known, and in olden
times anglers employed certain essential oils to add zest to their baits. Some
years since when at Roorkee, in Upper India, I was told of some fine barbels,
Mahaseer, attempts to tempt which with bait had proved ineffectual, when a
native suggested adding a little 'camphor, subsequent to which no difficulty
was experienced in obtaining a bite. A pike in clear water has been seen
to approach and then turn away from a stale gudgeon, and this may have
been due to smell.

Eyeless forms or those blind must depend on the sense of' smell as Well
as of that of touch. Some fish, due to accident, disease, hereditary malfor-
mation or want of development, are found totally devoid of vision, yet to
be in good condition and well-nourished, are daily taken by fishermen, and
the question forces itself on us how did they obtain food if belonging to forms
not furnished with barbels. Sir H. Davy considered it probable that trout
might have similar relations to the water it breathes that an animal with
delicate nasal organs has to the air, and fancied that there might be nerves
in the gills, which afforded it this sense of the qualities of the surrounding
fluid.

Fish are provided with organs of smell to enable them to receive impres-
sions from the surrounding medium, directing them to their food or warning
them against impurities in the water. These organs are situated much as
we perceive them in the higher animals, but, exceping in Cyclostomata, with
this essential difference, that they do not communicate with the mouth, nor
are they related to the function of breathing, for were their delicate lining
membrane subject to incessant contact with currents of water, such would
doubtless have a deteriorating effect, owing to the density of the respired
element. The nostrils are essentially depressions or cavities, lined with a
large extent of a highly vascular pituitary membrane, packed into as small a
compass as possible, while we generally perceive one or two external openings
situated on the anterior portion of the snout. The capsule which lines these

SMELL. XXXV11

depressions is formed of a fibrous membrane, which in its turn lies upon a
cartilaginous- or more frequently an osseous basis, termed the turbinal bones.

The appearance of these openings or nostrils in bony or teleostean fishes
is various. There are generally two apertures on the upper surface, side, or
front edge of the snout leading to each olfactory sac, the one often tubular,
the other oval and patulous, while between them a bridge of integument or
even a wide interspace exists, and attached to their edge is often a valve which
protects one or both of the orifices. The anterior nostril is most frequently
tabular and contractile, the posterior open, while internally the two com-
municate one with the other. In a few forms only one opening is present
for each sac. In some eels and a few other Bony fishes we find a nasal orifice
on the inner side of the upper lip.

In the Plagiostomes the nasal depressions are very large, and a mem-
branous or cartilaginous opercle is present, by which they may be closed :
they open on the under surface of the face.' The membrane lining them is
exceedingly vascular, and provided with crypts which secrete mucus ; the
membrane is sometimes folded, and on these folds are occasionally stellated
ridges, in order to increase the extent of the surface. As the nasal cartilages
have their proper muscles, it has been concluded/' that these fishes scent as
well as smell, i.e. actively search for odoriferous impressions by rapidly
changing the current of water through the olfactory sac" (Owen, i, p. 329).

In the Cyclostomata we find an unpaired or single nasal aperture, situated
on the upper surface of the head. In one species, " the Myxine," a com-
munication with the palate exists in the form of a naso-palatine canal, which
opens backwards on the palate, where it is furnished with a valve ; whereas
in the Petromyzon the nasal duct terminates in a blind pouch,, without per-
forating the palate. In Amphioxus the organ of smell is likewise single, in
the form of a simple depression, placed rather on the left side, and which
ends in a small, dilated, blind pouch, resting upon the central axis of the
nervous system.

For the supply of these organs we have the olfactory nerve, which arises
alone from the rudimentary hemisphere of the brain, and having dilated,
perforates the anterior portion of the skull, where it corresponds with the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and immediately divides and subdivides
upon the radiating laminas here covered with the pituitary nasal membrane.
A branch of the fifth pair or one for sensation likewise goes as an accessory
nerve to the organs of smell.

That odour may exist in water is evident, and I have been informed by
a gentleman who kept tame . otters in India, that he has seen them hunt
along the bottom of a narrow and clear stream, following the trail of a' fish
as unerringly as. a hound works on land. Whether this odour is from the
fish itself or due to its excretions may be questioned.

XXXVU1 HEARING.

HEARING.

Hearing is developed in all fishes (except perhaps in the Amphioxus),
and it is very remarkable how any diversity of opinion can exist asto their
possessing this sense. Mr. Bradley instances how at Rotterdam, seeing
some carps fed which were kept in a moat of considerable extent, and having
kept qniet some time in order to be convinced that the fish would not come
spontaneously, the owner called in the manner he usually did at feeding
time, when they immediately gathered from all parts of the moat in such
numbers that there was hardly room for them to lie by one another. The
same gentleman alludes to a pond full of tame pike at Sir J. Bowyer's, near
Uxbridge, which could be called together at pleasure. Lacepede relates
how some fish, which had been kept in the basin of the Tuileries for
upwards of a century, would come when they were called by their names ;
while in many parts of Germany, trout, carp, and tench were summoned to
their food by the ringing of a bell. At many temples in India fishes are
called to receive food by means of ringing bells or by musical sounds.
Lieutenant Conolly remarks upon seeing numerous fishes coming to the
ghaut at Sidhnath to be fed when called. Carew, in Cornwall, is said to
have called his grey mullet together by making a noise like chopping with
a cleaver, and Sir Joseph Banks collected his fish by means of sounding a
bell. Mr. Dunn remarks that he has known pilchards start out of the water
by tens of thousands on the Plymouth nine o'clock gun being fired, fully
thirty miles away.

Irrespective of the fact of hearing comes the inquiry, why, if fish cannot
hear, do they possess a complicated internal auditory apparatus ? It is
generally asserted that in this class of animals there exists no vestige of an
external ear, but an auditory canal has been observed in some of the
Chondropterygians, as rays, opening on the surface of the head, near the
spiracle in dog-fishes, but in sharks it is generally covered by the skin.

The internal auditory apparatus of fishes are, as a rule, placed outside
the cavity which contains the brain, as seen in sharks, or more or less
within the cranial cavity, as in teleosteans. Its chief constituent parts
are the labyrinth, which is composed of three semi-circular canals and a
vestibule, which latter expands into one or more sacs, where the ear-bones
or otoliths are lodged. A tympanum and tympanic cavity are absent.

Many teleostean fishes possess fontanelles between the bones forming
the roof of the skull, and which, being closed by very thin bone or skin,
sounds from the surrounding water may be readily transmitted to the
contiguous internal ear. But the chief mode in which hearing exists must
be due to the surface of the fish being affected by vibrations of the water,

VOICE. XXXIX

caused by sounds transmitted directly to the internal ear, or else by means
of the air-bladder acting as a sounding-board (see page xliii).

Prior to observing upon the air-bladder arises the question, whether fish
can or cannot communicate- by means of sound one with another. Mr.
Symonds tells us how, introducing a brass minnow as a bait he killed a
large number of perch in four days in a certain piece of water, but that
subsequently they entirely refused this bait, although, on the pond being
drained, thousands of these fish were found to be present. Also that he
has seen the same result follow in another piece of water, whereas in
neither could one in a hundred fish have been pricked by the hook.

*

VOICE.

Voluntary and -involuntary sounds, due to emotions, ai'e emitted in
different manners by many fishes, and in some rare instances solely at
certain seasons. Very dissimilar organs may originate somewhat similar
sounds, while sounds apparently identical may not always be expressive of
the same feeling. But as the human voice can be modified into tones of
command, love," terror, &c, so in fishes one sound may denote fear, danger,
or anger, and perhaps even terms of conjugal endearment.

M. Dufosse conducted with great care experiments on these subjects
upon some of the fishes of the Mediterranean, and reduced his results to a
system, in which the various sounds and modes of their production are
most elaborately classified. Thus some occur on their being removed from
hooks and thrown into a bucket ; these may be temporary and mostly
involuntary, and often convulsive and unintentional : their production may
be due to unusual movements of the jaws, opercles, or other bony elements;
or else induced in thick-lipped forms, as the. tench and carp, when com-
pelled to suddenly open their mouths ; the tench repeats the noise from its
lips so frequently that it has been compared to the croaking of a frog.

There are voluntary sounds as constant ones always produced by the
same organ which are evidently intentional, and can even serve to characterize
a species. Thus we find expressive sounds as of a harsh grating nature, as
stridulation caused by the friction of the dental organ, or of some bones as
the pharyngeals which guard the entrance into the gullet, or the densely
hard pi'ominences of the jaws as observed in the sun-fish. Musical sounds
may be occasioned by the contraction of muscles which are contiguous to
the air-bladder, or are attached to the air-bladder itself as in the " mailed
gurnard."

Many fishes when captured emit sounds which appear to be due to terror,
as a scad or horse-mackerel (0 'ar una; hippos) ; a globe-fish (Tetrodon), and
others grunt like a pig. A Siluroid found in the Rio Parana, and called the

xl AIR-BLADDER.

Armado, is remarkable for a harsh grating noise which it emits when caught
by hook and line : this can be distinctly heard while it is still beneath the
water. The cuckoo-gurnard (Trigla pini) and the maigre (Scicena aquila)
utter sounds, not only while being removed from the water, but the latter
likewise, when swimming in shoals, emits, grunting or purring noises that
may be heard from a depth of 20 fathoms. The Corvina nigra, a fish in the
Tagus, emits sounds resembling the vibrations of a deep-toned bell, gong,
or pedal-pipe of an organ. Herrings (Clupea liarengus), when the net has
been drawn over them, have been observed to do the same. The fresh-water
bullhead (Cottns gobio) emits similar sounds. At Madras I obtained several
live sheat-fishes, Macrones vittatus, locally termed " fiddler fish/' and on
touching one which was lying on some wet grass, it erected its armed spines,
emitting a sound resembling the buzzing of a bee, and apparently in anger
or fear. Canon Tristram when in Palestine obtained some .amphibious siluroid
fish, Clarias macracanthus, which on being taken in the hand " squealed and
shrieked with a hissing sound like a cat at bay, and rapidly floundered
back to the streamlet, working their way- rapidly among grass and over
gravel."

AIR-BLADDER.

Prior to noticing the functions of respiration, some remarks will be
necessary on the air-bladders of fishes, also termed the swim-bladder, and the
air-sac or air-vessel (fig. 4, page xviii, vn, vn'). It is a single or variously
sub-divided sac; or it may be two sacs, partially or completely separated one
from the other. Situated above the centre of gravity,* it lies beneath the
vertebral column or backbone, from which it is more or less divided by the
kidneys, while inferiorly the peritoneum is between it and the intestines. As
this organ isentirely absent, or ceases to be developed in many fishes, and may
be present or wanting in species belonging to the same genus, it would appear
that it is not indispensable to the existence of these animals, its functions
being under certain conditions accessory or supplemental, to those of other
organs of the body ; while it is generally observed that the urinary bladder is
largest in those forms where the air-bladder is absent. In the embryo it
originates as a bud or offshoot from the upper portion of the alimentary
canal, or even from the stomach ; this offshoot next elongates into a blind

tube, which enlarges at its terminal extremity into what will eventually form
the air-bladder. Consequently at some period of a fish's existence there
must of necessity be a tube connecting the air-bladder (should one exist)

* Were the air-bladder below the centre of gravity, or its contents evacuated into the abdominal
cavity, the fish (unless its fins were very greatly developed) would roll over on its back, as we see
occurs in Tetrodons and Diodnns, wlien-they inflate their (esophageal sac.

RESPIRATORY, HYDROSTATIC, AND ACOUSTIC USES OF. xli

with the alimentary canal, into which latter it opens usually on its superior
or dorsal, rarely on its lateral, but occasionally on its inferior or ventral wall.

The air-bladder is present in the sub-classes Dipnoids, all the members
of which are fresh-water; also in the Ganoids, which are entirely or partially
fresh-water fishes. It is absent in the Chondropterygii, except in a rudi-
mentary form, as a diverticulum opening on the dorsal wall of the pharynx,
and then only in some genera. While in the lowly developed Cyclostomata
(Mar.npobranchii) and the Leptocardii (Pharyngobrancliii) it is entirely
wanting.

In the large sub-class Teleostei it is present in the Orders Acanthopterygii,
Lopliobranchii, and Plectognathi as a closed sac (PJtysoclisti), the majority of
these fishes are marine. Whereas in the Physostomi it generally exists as a
sac, having a connecting tube opening from it into the alimentary canal ;
the largest proportion of which fishes live in fresh water. As a general rule
the air-bladder exists more constantly in the fresh-water than in the marine
classes.

Among the Dipnoids it is distinctly or indistinctly double, lung-like, and
communicating throughout life, by means of a duct and glottis, with the
oesophagus or pharynx. It is thus in the Lepidosiren of. the Brazils, in
South America ; Protopterus of tropical Africa; and Geratodus of Queens-
land, South Australia. All these fishes have been observed to ascend to
the surface of the water for the purposes of respiration, and take in atmos-
heric air direct ; a mode of breathing, however, not confined solely to these
forms.*

The Acipenser or sturgeon is provided with an air-bladder, but not
similarly cellular to those already remarked upon ; it does not appear to be
employed in respiration, but its functions seem to be restricted to acting as-
a float. The opening from the air-bladder into the alimentary canal is that
of a lower type, being on the dorsal surface, and it is not guarded by a glottis.

Thus among the Dipnoids.the air-bladder has a lung-like function, opening
on the ventral wall of the pharynx, and protected by a glottis. But among
the Ganoids there is a divergence from the Dipnoid organization. Although
Amia has a respiratory air-sac, opening into the pharynx by a glottis, the
communicating orifice is on the upper or dorsal, and not on the lower or
ventral aspect, as occurring in the higher forms. Polypterus it is true opens
on the ventral wall, but in Acipenser the respiratory function, has not been
developed, and the pneumatic opening is upon the dorsal wall of the
pharynx.

Air-bladders in fishes as might be. expected in organs appearing in the
lowest class of vertebrates, are of diverse forms and sizes, as well as
differently protected. Existing in the abdominal cavity, as already described,

* See Day, Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Chub, vol. vi, pp. 229-242.

xlii AIR-BLADDER.

they have usually two coats an external, fibrous, tough, and glistening, and
an internal, vascular, and mucous one. Between these two coats is often
seen (especially in the Physoclisti) a red glandular body, most frequently in
its inferior region, and compared by some anatomists to the thymus. This
gland seems to have the character of a rete mirabile, consisting of a double
plexus of arteries and veins.

It has long been known that the gas contained in the air-bladder is
a mixture of oxygen, azote, and carbonic acid, in variable proportions,
in accordance with species, and even with individuals. M. Moreau has
proved that among the fishes in which the air-bladder is closed (Physoclisti)
this organ always contains a greater part of the oxygen whenever the animal
is in a normal condition, that the oxygen disappears little by little if the
animal cannot any longer derive it from its surroundings, and that finally
it perishes asphyxiated.

The air-bladder, excluding those forms which respire air, is generally
found after death tightly distended with gas, and this consists chiefly
of nitrogen in the fresh-water forms, and oxygen in marine,, genera, this
latter substance augmenting in sea fishes in accordance with the depth
at which the fish is captured. It has formed a subject of considerable
discussion as to how this gas is generated, but, as in those classes in which
the air-bladder is a closed sac (Physoclisti), it is as well seen as in others
possessing a pneumatic tube (Physostomi), one cannot resist believing that
the gas must be eliminated from the blood-vessels lining the interior of the
organ. Probably the gland serves the special purpose of removing super-
fluous gas or any deleterious substance, while the pneumatic tube is not
employed to admit the ingress of air, but acts as safety-valve when the organ
is too tightly distended.

The air-bladder is homologous with the lung in its position and function
in some of the higher orders ; and as a gradation can be traced, it becomes no
less clear that this homology (whatever its functions may be) exists throughout
every variety and condition of air-bladder in the pisciue tribes. The arteries
which supply the air-bladder in teleosteans are offshoots direct from the
abdominal aorta, cceliac artery, or last branchial vein ; the blood is returned
to the portal, hepatic, or great cardiac vein. In the highest class of fishes
we find this organ differently supplied, as it is not only the homologue but
likewise the analogue of the lung, thus in Lepidosiren* venous blood is
distributed to the organ and arterial conveyed away, the two efferent veins
having coalesced, pierce the large post-caval, then pass forwards and through
the sinus and auricle, and thus discharge the blood into the ventricle.
Consequently we find that in this organ there are two distinct modes of

* Quekett, who injected a small portion of the air-bladder of this fish, found the arrangement
of the vessels was precisely similar to that existing in the lungs of reptiles.

HYDROSTATIC AND ACOUSTIC USES OF. xliii'

sanguification, in the lower division arterial blood goes to it and venous is
returned from it; whereas in the higher forms venous is carried to it,
oxygenated at it, and returned as arterial blood into the heart.

In teleostean fishes the air-bladder exists in the form of a closed
sac (Physoclisti), as in the spiny-rayed Acantliopterygians, the spineless
Anacanthini, the tufted-gilled Lophobranchii, and the hard-jawed Plectog-
nathi. While ' in the remaining orders a connecting duct remains
pervious, as in the Physostomi, excluding the family Scombresocidce.

The air-bladder, however, is not only absent in many families, but it
may be present or deficient among species of the same genus. One form of
British mackerel, Scomber colias, possesses this organ, while the S. scomber
has none. This is by no means peculiar to European genera.

In such forms as swim near the surface the air-bladder is generally of a
comparatively small size ; while in those which live near the bottom, as the
flat fishes, Pleuronectidce, it is as a rule absent. In species possessing this
organ, should it become ruptured from any cause, permitting the contained
gas to escape, the fish has by some authors been observed to sink to the bottom,
and to be unable to re-ascend, a conclusion some experiments have failed
to establish. On the other hand some forms which have been hooked or
netted at great depths and suddenly brought to the surface, without having
time to compress or partially empty their air-bladders, the contained gas
being no longer weighted down by a mass of superimposed water, expands
rapidly, causing the organ to burst, or else forcing the stomach and upper
portion of the alimentary canal into the fishes mouth.*

The chief use of this organ (excluding respiration and the production of
sound) in teleostean fishes are two (1) A hydrostatic, or for . flotation,
which serves by contracting or distending its capacity, to condense or
rarify the contained gases, giving it the mechanical function of enabling its
possessor to maintain a desired level in the water, and which is accompanied
with the power of renewing, expelling, and compressing, or dilating its gaseous
contents, so that it can rise or fall as necessity occurs. (2) The second
use is acoustic, it being partially or entirely employed for hearing, by
means of various modes of connection with the internal ear, mostly by
tubular prolongations of the air-bladder, or a connecting chain of auditory
ossicles.

Among the Physoclisti, the majority of which are marine, we find the
air-bladder as a closed sac, having a single cavity, as observed in many of
the Percidas, wherein its greatest length is in its longitudinal axis. In
some forms, as " Holocentrum and Sargns ccecal processes of the air-bladder
diverge to attach themselves to the membrane, closing the part of the

* " A fish may remain at the bottom of the water due to the very fact of the pressure of the
column of water on the air contained in the bladder," Mullek.

xliv AIR-BLADDER

octocrane containing the sac of the great otolite" (Owen). It has likewise
been remarked that in the scad or horse-mackerel, Caranx traehnrus, a
canal passes from the air-bladder to the bronchial cavity, permitting the
escape of air, although it does not serve to admit it.* Knert observed that
in several fishes provided with pectoral pores, the thymus gland is absent,
and the air-bladder communicates with the oesophagus by an open duct in
some Acanthopterygians, as Holocentrwm, Priacanthus, Gcesio, &c. The
air-bladder may have lateral attachments, as in Scicena, or blind appendages,
as in Polynemus. The interior of the air-bladder of Physoclisti, as the cod,
is lined with a thin membrane of silvery whiteness, composed of a series
of fibres, covered with a basement membrane, provided with scales of
epithelium ; beneath this is a layer of vessels, while inside is situated a
highly vascular body, receiving blood direct from the aorta : capillaries
exist, and^ here veins commence. In the perch the glandular body is not
in one compact mass, but scattered about its interior. J

If we examine the Pliysostomi, or those families in which a pervious
pneumatic duct exists throughout life, we find the majority of such are
fresh-water forms, situated between the Physoclisti on one hand and the
Dipnoids and Ganoids on the other. This pneumatic tube possesses the
same coats as the air-bladder, is of various lengths, and is said to be
occasionally tortuous. As a rule it opens upon the dorsal surface of the
alimentary canal, but in some of the herring family directly into the
stomach. The glandular body observed upon as existing inside the air-
bladders of the Physoclisti, is not so well developed, as a rule || in the
Physostomi. As this pneumatic tube has no muscular coat its diameter
can hardly vary, except when acted upon by other forces, it would therefore
be useless for inspiration. If we examine a carp we find its air-bladder is
generally a simple sac, with a constriction between its anterior third and
posterior two-thirds, but not sufficient to close the communication. From
the posterior portion of the air-bladder^f springs the pneumatic tube, as
already described; or else this organ may be in the form of two rounded
portions placed side by side beneath the bodies of some of the anterior -
vertebras, and not communicating with each other; but the two pneumatic

* A. Moreau, Compt. Rend., Ixxx, pp. 1247-1250.

t Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien. 1864, xlix, May, pp. 455-459.

% Quekett, Trans. Microp. Soc, i, 1844, p. 100.

The majority of marine Physostomi are littoral, or surface swimmers, often weak forms,
which have to escape pursuit of enemies while rapidly rising' to the surface.

| In the eel there are two, placed one on each side of the duct communicating between its two
portions: the distribution of its vessels in the upper cpmpartment of its air-bladder Quekett
likened to the cellular lung of reptiles.

^1 In carps the anterior portion, of the air-bladder is very elastic, the posterior hut slightly so.
Miller observed that "in proportion as the fish rises in the water the anterior bladder, which is
the most elastic, ninsL considerably increase in volume, and thus keep ibe head of the animal up,
while the contrary must be the case when the fish descends."

ACCOUSTIC AND HYDROSTATIC USES OF. xlv

tubes coalesce previous to entering the dorsal wall of the alimentary canal.
Not only in the Cyprinidce but also in the Gharacinidte and Siluridce a
chain of auditory ossicles connects the air-bladder with the internal ear,
instead of a tube filled with gas, as remarked upon in the Physoclisti.
Three ossicles on either side pass forwards along the under surface of the
body of the first vertebra, connecting the outer wall of the air-bladder with
the atria of the vestibule. These ossicles were first pointed out by Weber;
and since his time it has been shown that they belong, like the capsules of
the special organs of sense, to the splanchnoskeleton.

In the same family, or that of carps, we find a curious form of
loach, Botia, in the East Indies, that can scarcely be said to be
entirely aground-feeder, but seems intermediate "in habits between the true
carps and the grovelling loaches. It has the anterior portion of its air-
bladder, or what may be termed the acoustic part, more or less enclosed in
bone, this being formed from the parapophyses of some of the anterior
cervical vertebra. All fish with the air-vessel enclosed in bone are bottom
feeders, and very few are destitute of barbels. In the true ground-feeding
loaches, as the Nemacheilus and Cobitis, it almost appears as if the posterior
two-thirds- of the air-bladder, or its hydrostatic portion, were deficient ; the
organ being in the form of two round lobes, placed side by side, below the
bodies of some of the anterior vertebras, where they are almost entirely
enclosed in bone. The pneumatic tube, however, is still found to exist. In
another exclusively ground-feeding form of carp, Honialoptera, in the East
Indies, and in which the lower surface of its body appears flat, and its
general conformation refers to its habit of .clinging close to stones at the
bottom of streams, we find the air-bladder entirely wanting.

Another fresh-water family of Physostomi, the Gharacinidw , residents
of tropical Africa and America, are exceedingly interesting, as regards how
this organ is modified in respect to hearing ; a chain of auditory ossicles
extending from it to the internal ear,- as observed in the Cyprinidre. While
in Erijthrinus we perceive a most interesting link between the Pbysostomous
Teleosteans on one hand and the air-breathing Ganoids on the . other, for
in this genus, although the air-bladder is above the alimentary canal, the
pneumatic tube pierces the left side of the throat. The air-bladder is
likewise sub-divided by fibrous partitions, but whether such are exceedingly
vascular or not, whether this organ is used for respiration or simply for
flotation, there does not appear at present to be evidence upon which to
decide.

The extensive fresh-water Physostomous family (which has likewise
some marine representatives) of Siluridce,- or' sheat-fishes, is very abundant
in the tropics. Among them the air-bladder is remarkably modified, in the
majority of instances being apparently more useful for auditory that for

xlvi AIR-BLADDER.

hydrostatic functions, and as a general rule being smaller in fresh-water
than in marine species. The Siluridce of Asia live the life of ground-feeders,
and the power of employing their air-bladder as a float appears to be
subservient to that of hearing. In the marine forms it has thickened walls,
and the parapophyses of the first vertebras (ex. Ar.ius subrostratus) form
expanded plates, to the under surface of which this organ is attached. As
we go inland, especially towards the Himalayas, this organ becomes more
and more enveloped in bone until it is as we find it in the loaches, while,
like the Cyprinidas, a chain of ossicles passes forwards to the iuternal ear.
In the marine forms the broad plate on its upper surface and bony stays
to its partitions would appear to exist for the purpose of counteracting
superincumbent pressure ; while in the fresh-water forms this bony covering,
being greatly increased, would seem to be due to some fresh-water physical
cause, not to a tropical climate, as I have observed the same phenomena
is seen in European loaches. As all are ground-feeders, one reason at
least must be to prevent undue pressure on that organ when at great
depths, and to preclude any abnormal interference with the function of
hearing.

Among the marine Physostomous forms all that have been examined,
I believe, and in which communications exist between the air-bladder and
internal ear, have such by means of ccecal prolongations from the air-bladder,
and not by a chain of auditory ossicles, which appear to be absent in marine
fishes. This leads one to inquire whether there are any fresh-water fishes
that have this connection, as observed in sea forms. The perch has no
auditory ossicles, and I should think its origin may be given as marine ;
and the same conclusion may be come to of the trout and anadromous
salmon.

In short, the air-bladder in fishes is the homologue of the lungs of the
superior vertebrate foi'ms ; in some of the higher sub-classes it serves as a
lung, depurating the blood; but in the majority of true or teleostean fishes
it is employed for one or both of the following purposes : as a float, enabling
its possessor, by compressing or dilating it, to sink or rise to any desired
level in the water ; or, secondly, that it assists hearing by communicating
with the internal ear : that in those forms in which it has an auditory
function, we perceive two very distinct modifications, for among marine
Physoclisti a prolongation of the air-bladder passes forwards to the interior
of the skull, while in fresh-water Physostomi, although a similar connection
exists, it is by means of a chain of auditory ossicles ; while in such fishes
as live the life of ground-feeders a still further change may take place, in
the air-bladder itself being more or less completely surrounded by osseous
walls, formed by the growth of the parapophyses of some of the anterior
vertebras.

RESPIRATION. xlvii

RESPIRATION.

Respiration in fishes, excluding the amphibious forms, is fundamentally
the same as in the higher vertebrates, the blood being decarbonized at the
gills, where any circulating carbon unites with the oxygen of the atmos-
pheric air (which is nominally contained in the water), and is thus excreted
as carbonic acid gas. Some foetal sharks and rays have deciduous gills,*
which are only present in the embryo (plate clxv).

The first circumstance which attracts attention is that generally the wider
the gill-openings the sooner the fish expires after removal from its native
element as observed in the mackerel or herring. On the other hand, those
with narrow gill-openings frequently live some time after their removal
from the water as in the common eel. For as the delicate fringes of the
gills become dry they adhere one to another, thus mechanically preventing
them from acting, and consequently the blood cannot be decarbonized.
Irrespective, however, of the foregoing cause a larger amount of oxygen is
necessary for respiration in some fishes (as herrings) in comparison with
their size than in others as the common carp, which has a much lower
vitality. Suffocation may also be produced, due to the gills being choked
with mud. Likewise consequent upon heat the air which should be in the
Water may become diminished or driven out, and when this occurs the fishes,
to avoid suffocation, may be seen ascending to the surface to obtain that
which they have not a sufficiency of lower down.

For the purpose of breathing a fish takes or gulphs in water by its
mouth, which passes backwards to the gills,. and is then discharged outwards
by the gill-openings, which are of varying size, while as to numbers, there
may be one on either side of or behind the head as generally seen in bony
fishes, or a single opening below the throat as in the anguilliform
Symbranchus, or several as in most of the Chondropterygii, and likewise in
the Cyclostomata.

Among the bony fishes the gills supported by bony gill-arches are placed
in a cavity behind and below the pharynx, while between these bony arches
are clefts. or slits permitting water to pass from the pharynx to the gills,
subsequent to which it is discharged externally through the gill-openings.
The branchial or gill-arches (see page xvi) are five in number, but are
variously provided with gills on their outer surfaces, the majority having
four complete gills, but occasionally the fourth has merely a single or
uniserial gill, sometimes none at all. In our British frog-fish (vol. i,

* In young teleosteans, as the alevin stage of the trout, the gill-covers do not extend to oyqr
the gills, which are consequently bathed in the surrounding waters. Under certain conditions the
pectoral fin assists in the breathing process (see page xi).

xlviii RESPIRATION.

page 72) there are three gills, in the curious tropical Malthe belonging
to the same family the Pediculati, two and a half, while the eel-like
and amphibious Cuchia of Asia has merely one small gill belonging
to the secoud branchial arch. The pharyngeal or inner side of these
gill-arches may be simply covered with integument or possess projections
of varying forms which have been designated gill-rakers, and whose numbers
sometimes assist in ascertaining the distinction between two nearly
allied species as in our two common shads (vol. ii, pp. 234, 236).
These gill-rakers may be very fine, long, placed close together, and per-
forming the function of a sieve by arresting, the progress of anything but
water from the pharynx to the gills. Or they may be placed somewhat
wider asunder, be shorter in length, and then would be only efficacious in
stopping large particles. In some forms they may be teeth-bearing
tubercles, or simply, rough. Irrespective of this sieve-like apparatus pre-
venting foreign bodies passing from the pharynx through the clefts or
slits existing between the branchial or gill-arches to the gills, their inter-
branchial slits may be decreased in size, or even obliterated ; for in some
forms, as in Oottus, no opening or slit is to be found behind the fourth
branchial arch, and when this is the case merely a single or uniserial gill is
present on it.

The gills or branchiae of fishes may be destitute of support as among the
Plagiostomata (vol. ii, page 287), or be supported by horny or cartilaginous
processes placed along the outer convex edge of the branchial or gill-
arches and fixed in the integment. Normally or in complete gills there are
two rows of these rods, one along either edge, whereas in the uniserial or
half-gills there only exists one row. Although all gills are essentially the
same as to their formation, their appearance differs, thus among the Lopho-
branchiate forms (vol. ii, page 256) each gill expands towai'ds its free
extremity, whereas they generally become attenuated and compressed, while
numerous varieties are observable.

The pseudobranchias, or false gills, which often exist, are situated more
along the inner side of the gill-covers iii teleosteans, or within the spiracles
in Chondropterygians, or. concealed under the integument so as to appear
like a glandular body on the remains of an anterior gill which in the
embryonic life of the fish performed respiratory functions, but which in the
adult fish receives arterial blood.

Accessory respiratory organs exist in some fishes, especially tropical
forms, as in the climbing perch among the Labyrinthici, the walking fishes
among the Ophiocephalidce, and the scorpion-fish Saccubranchus and the
Clarias among siluroids or sheat-fishes. Joubert remarks that respiration
may be carried on in Gailichthys by air passing through the intestines ; in
Boras, Erytlirinas, and Sardis gigas, the air-bladder performs this function.

TEMPERATURE. CIRCULATION. xllX

TEMPERATURE OF FISHES.

The temperature of the blood of fishes is much the same as that of ' the
fluid in which they reside, but in some forms wherein there is great muscular
activity, as in the tunnies, the respiratory process is so energetic that it
raises it to a much greater heat. Davy when making investigations upon
the heat of a tunny fish, Thynnus (vol. i, page 100), observed that the
temperature would appear to be about 12 deg. above the medium in which
they swim, and at least 9 deg. above that of the surface of the water.

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.

Fishes are provided with an arterial and venous circulation similar to what
obtains in the higher classes of vertebrates, and possess one for general
nutrition, one for respiration, and also a portal system. But of these only
the respiratory circulation possesses any muscular contractile system at its
commencement, while it corresponds to the right or venous side of the
heart of birds and mammals. The heart, which is absent in the Amphioxus,
in other fishes is small compared with the size of their bodies and lodged
in a cardiac chamber or pericardiac cavity which is closed in osseous fishes,
but communicates with the peritoneal cavity in the sturgeon and among the
plagiostomes, while in the myxine this cavity is simply a continuation of the
peritoneum. Although the heart is usually placed a short distance behind
the lower jaw and between the branchial and abdominal cavities, variations in
its position are found to exist. In the true Apodes it is placed far back
and behind the scapular arch. It is mostly free in the cavity it occupies,
but sometimes, as in the sturgeon or eel, it has ligamentous attach-
ments to the walls of the pericardium. It consists of an auricle or atrium,
having thin walls, and into which a large venous sinus empties itself, having
brought the blood from the veins of the body : a thick walled and
muscular ventricle, and an arterial bulb. The venous sinus is situated out-
side the pericardiac cavity in teleosteans, but within it in plagiostomes.
The arterial bulb or enlargement at the base of the arterial system in teleos-
teans, termed the bulbus arteriosus, is a pear-shaped dilatation of the artery,
elastic, but destitute of any contractility, while internally it may contain
many trabeculas and irregular pouches but no valves, but has at its base one,
two, or three valves, or even four in the sunfish.' Among the Chondrop-
terygii this swelling differs in size, while internally its valvular system has
been found useful in classification. Externally this bulb is but little
developed among the Chimeras, is mostly conical among the sturgeons and

d

CIRCULATION. TEETH.

plagiostomes and a continuation of the ventricle having striated muscular
fibres, internally it possesses no valves at its base, but is lined by several
rows, while it regularly contracts, alternating with the contractions of the
ventricle. Internally it is provided with transverse rows of longitudinally
shaped valves, varying in number with the forms to which they pertain :
among the Chondropterygii it has been termed conus arteriosus to dis-
tinguish it from what is seen in teleosteans and cyclostomes. From the
arterial bulb, or rather a continuation of it, is the branchial artery, which
sends off branches from either side to the gills, where the blood having
been purified, is returned to the dorsal vessel or aorta which distributes it
throughout the body. It will be unnecessary in this place to remark any
further on the arterial, venous, or lymphatic systems in fishes.

If we except the aberrant form of Amphioxus, all fishes possess blood
corpuscles, varying considerably in size, being largest in the lepidosiren, of
rather less size in the plagiostomes, while among the bony fishes those of
the Salmonidas appear to be of the greatest diameter, but are inferior
in size to those of the Chondropterygians. It contains red and colourless
globules, the former being as a rule elliptical, but are round in lampreys ;
circular globules are not unfrequently perceptible in the blood of fishes.

TEETH.

The teeth of fishes are more generally concerned in capturing than in
masticating their prey, and are vained in their form, sometimes differing with
the age or sex of the individual, and found in various situations inside the
mouth and contiguous parts, thereby furnishing an important aid in
classification, assisted likewise by their external characters. Some forms
are destitute of teeth, or possess them solely in the pharyngeal bones, but
from the lips to all the bones entering more or less into the composition of
the buccal cavity, there is a tendency of the mucous membrane in almost
any of these parts to develop teeth, especially among teleosteans. This
is also seen iu some plagiostomes. Among osseous fishes teeth are
most commonly observed springing from or more or less attached to
bone. Teeth as a rule are simple, and may be isolated one from
another, as in the porbeagle shark (plate clvi), or they may be com-
pound and form a large plate with pavement-like subdivisions, as seen in
Myliobatis (plate clxxvi) . Among teleosteans they may appear as a bony
continuation of the jaws, as in Tetrodons (vol. ii, plate cxlvii). In some, as
carps, teeth are absent from the jaws, or they may be isolated, as in the
anterior portion of the jaws in the wolf- fish (plate lviii), or in a single row,
as in the blennies, a double row, as in the holibut (plate xciv), a treble row,

TEETH. INTESTINAL TRACT. ll

as in some of the Pagelli, in many rows, as in the eel (plate cxlii), or be
deciduous with age, as in the body of the vomer among the Salmonidas. Some
teeth have broad and rounded molariform crowns, as in Pagrus (plate xi), or
they may be laterally compressed, as in blennies, or of a lancet-shaped form,
as in Trichiurus ; while their cutting edge may have one, two, or three cusps,
and be smooth or serrated. In some fish the teeth are like bristles or
setiform ; or arranged so close together as to appear like pile upon velvet or
villiform ; or mixed with rather larger ones, cardiform ; recurved, barbed
at their extremities ; canine like ; or compressed and cutting ; of equal or
unequal sizes ; and more than one form may be present in a single fish.
Some species have the teeth resting on a sort of basal joint or a hinge, which
enables them on pressure being made to be reclined towards the inside of
the mouth, but reverting to their original direction upon the pressure being
removed. The principle is not identical in all these hinged teeth, thus m
the angler (plate xxix) and the hake (plate lxxxv) elasticity is present solely
in the substances constituting the hinge ; whereas in the pike (plate cxxvi)
this is not the case, but the bundles of fibres proceediug from the interior
of the dentine cap are elastic (C. Tomes). Fishes' teeth- are constantly
shed and generally as constantly renewed by a second appearing from
beneath or else to one side. This renewal of teeth is well seen in the
shark, wherein a row from behind constantly fills up the one which is in
use.

The composition of the teeth shows many variations, but principally
consists of vaso dentiue, which may be said to be dentinal tissue, into which
vascular medullary canals are prolonged, sometimes externally covered by
dentine which is not vascular.

THE INTESTINAL TRACT.

The commencement of the intestinal canal or the mouth is the common
receptacle of water passing to the gills for respiration, and of food transmitted
to the stomach for nutrition, while, as might be anticipated, its capacity is
large and variously formed. But it is not my purpose to enter at present
on the several purposes for which the mouth is employed, or the means by
which these are effected, except to remark on the absence of the salivary
glands, which in some forms seem to be represented by mucous follicles
that open into the mouth below the side of the tongue, much saliva doubtless
being unnecessary, owing to the moist condition of their food.' Also that
among the carp-like fish the palate is very sensitive, exceedingly vascular,
while from numerous small pores mucus of a solvent character exudes,
apparently to assist the digestion of food which the pharyngeal teeth
masticate. The gastric portion consists of an oesophagus and a stomach,

d *

Ill INTESTINAL TRACT.

between which a cardiac constriction is not so frequently observable as a
change in the structure of the lining mucous membrane. In some forms there
hardly exists any definite line of demarcation between the lower end of the
stomach and the commencement of the small intestines, but in many a
constriction occurs in this situation, termed the pylorus, although it must
be observed that the orifices at the ends of the stomach are usually more or
less approximated, in order that the food may be retained as in a ccecum.
Occasionally the stomach occurs not in the direct course of, but to one side as
it were, of the intestinal canal. A second constriction, marked internally by
a more or less well-defined internal valve, shows where the small intestines
terminate and the large ones begin.

Generally among teleosteans the various portions of the intestinal tract
are sufficiently distinct to be distinguished simply by an external inspection :
'sometimes the differences between each part are so slight that the situation
where the ducts enter give the best clue to the various parts.

If the intestinal canal is slit up and its inner surface examined, the
commencement of the stomach is generally observed to be defined by
increased vascularity and a more delicate lining membrane than that existing
in the oesophagus. Its upper or cardiac orifice is usually larger than its
lower or pyloric one, while the form of the entire organ is subject to
considerable modification, being usually found in one of the two following
divisions : the siphoned, which somewhat resembles a bent tube, as seen in
the lumpsucker, flounder, salmon, carp, sturgeon, and most of the plagios-
tomes ; and the ccecal, in which it ends in a blind sac, and the pyloric portion
is continued from its right side, as observed in the perch, gurnard, weevers,
John Dory, whiting, &c. An intermediate or transitional form sometimes
exists, as in the sea scorpion or the turbot, irrespective of which certain
deviations occur which it is not my purpose to enlarge upon-. The Indian
Scicena, eironeously termed " whiting" (Johniiis), has the pyloric portion of
its stomach muscular, but this augmented thickness of the muscular coats
may be best perceived in the mullets (Mugil), in which the cardiac portion is
continued downwards into a blind sac, while the pyloric portion is thickened
like the gizzard of a bird, appearing as a rounded or conical projection
externally, and which when cut into is found to consist of thick muscular walls,
the small cavity remaining internally being lined with a thick and horny
epithelium. This gizzard-like stomach is evidently employed for grinding
up hard food, audit is curious to observe how, when some fresh-water forms
select hard substances for their diet, the coats of their stomachs may likewise
become thickened. Thus in the gillaroo trout we find the ascending or
pyloric portion of the stomach thickened. In the cyclostomes and
leptocardii the intestinal tract is straight, but in the lampreys longitudinal
folds are present in the oesophagus, and a single one along the intestinal tube.

STOMACH AND PYLORIC APPENDAGES. liii

Through the pyloric orifice, partially digested food reaches the com-
mencement of the small intestines, and as a rule we observe that the distance
from the pylorus to the vent is shorter in fishes than in most of the higher
vertebrata. But of course the length of the intestinal ti*act differs in various
classes, while its lining membrane is by no means of the same description in
all. In the salmon or herring we find the length of the intestines shorter
than that of the body, but in the former the intestinal lining membrane is
raised into transverse folds, thus increasing the extent of their secreting and
absorbing surface, which is also further augmented by the secretions of
numerous ccecal appendages. In the herring, again, the ccecal appendages
are numei'ous. In other forms we find the intestines themselves convoluted,
thus increasing their length, and this is well seen among the carps. In the
shad Cuvier observed that valvules conniventes existed in the intestines,
while in the salmon the folds of the internal lining of the intestines increase
in size, decrease in number, and become less oblique as they approach the
rectum, or the commencement of the large intestine is marked by a large
circular valve, which is succeeded by several others which are completely or
incompletely transverse. This large intestine may be straight, as seen
in the sturgeon or ch-imasra, &c, where the transverse folds may become
continuous, and there is formed an uninterrupted spiral valve, also present
in the sharks, the rays, and their allies, but which may be modified into
transverse coils.

It is thus that in fishes economy of space is effected by an increase of the
secreting and absorbing surface of the vasculo-mucous membrane lining the
intestinal tract, whether such be merely raised into puckers, or these puckers
be continued into transverse folds, or even forming a circular uninterrupted
spiral valve or coil to the large intestine.

An examination into the ccecal appendages, also termed pyloric cceca,
and pyloric appendages what forms possess and what are deficient in them
under what circumstances they vary and, lastly, what are their functions,
show them to be questions respecting which much still remains to be
ascertained. In different fishes they may be useful for different purposes
either as an absorbing or secreting surface, or both. Thus as observed by
Krukenberg, in the perch they are lined by simply mucous glands, whereas in
the herring theyrepresent the pancreas, and contain a " tryptic" ferment. In
some species these appendages are a modified pancreas, in addition to the very
rudimentary form of this organ which has been detected as a minute glandular
body, terminating in a duct, which opens by from one to three orifices into the
intestines, close to the bile duct, but occasionally so closely attached to the
latter as to be easily overlooked. The latter is seen both in fishes which possess
pyloric appendages, as perch, cod, salmon, sturgeon ; and in such as are
deficient in them, as brama, gar-pike, and pike, while the sharks and rays are

liv INTESTINAL TRACT.

furnished with a reddish-yellow and tabulated gland, which is more similar
to what is perceived in the higher forms of vertebrate animals.

As to the common appearances of coecal appendages,* if we commence
our investigations among the osseous fishes, we see in some one or more
small ducts, each ending externally in a blind extremity ; these either
surround the commencement of the intestine just beyond the pyloric or
lower end of the stomach, or else spring from one of the sides of the first
part of the small intestine, along which they may be continued for some
little distance. We find in a single fish from one to upwards of a hundred
of these ccecal appendages, each of which may open by a separate orifice
into the intestinal canal, or two or more conjoining form a common duct,
and thus diminish the number of openings, while in the bogue-fish (Boops),
two ccecal appendages are seen at the termination of the intestinal tract. In
the sword-fish (Xiphias), all the various appendages conjoin with the common
tubes which empty their contents into the intestines. Passing from the
osseous upwards to the cartilaginous or semi- cartilaginous fishes of the
ganoid sub-class, we still find this gland present. Thus in the sturgeon
(Acipenser), a mass of areolar tissue binds the various coeca together,
forming it into a parenchymatous conglomerate gland.

The general appearance of the ccecal appendages consists of ducts of
varying length and numbers, attached externally to the small intestines,
into which they empty themselves. If these cceca are opened, they are mostly
seen to possess a glandular lining membrane, where a glairy fluid is secreted,
similar in appearance to the secretion from the internal surface of the
intestinal canal. Chyme has likewise been said to have been found
inside them. It seems probable that in the interior of these tubes a
large amount of nutritive substances are present, for the tape-worms
(Bothriocephali) so common in some fishes, as the salmon, are almost
constantly found with their heads up these cceca, and from which they must
obtain their subsistence. For it is reasonable to suppose that in choosing
this locality they have been influenced by one of the following considera-
tions : Absence from the main intestinal tract, which is constantly being
employed in conveying nutriment and excreta ; or else in selecting some
situation where the nutriment is more abundant.

If we take a general survey of these two classes, we observe that coecal
appendages are far more common among marine than fresh-water fishes ;

* It may be as well before proceeding further to explain my plan for examining these appendages,
for I employ, as a rule, one of the following processes. The easiest mode is to tie the oesophagus
and inflate the intestines, appendages, and stomach by means of a blowpipe, tube, or quill, from
an opening made in the intestines, or to tie the intestines and inflate from the oesophagus, while
the use of a solution of chromic acid hardens the preparation. Should the fish not be sufficiently
fresh for this purpose, it must be examined under water, when occasionally it can be injected with
spirit.

URINARY ORGANS. lv

also that in the highly-organized sharks and rays, instead of these appendages
we find a spiral valve existing in the intestines, as already described.

URINARY ORGANS.

The urinary organs are composed of the kidneys as a secreting or
excreting apparatus, the ureters, the bladder, and the urethra, the two last
being absent in some fishes. The kidneys, according to Vogt and some
others, appear to be composed of the Wolfian bodies, structures persistent
among fishes, but which are not permanent among other vertebrate animals,
whereas' other authors deny this. Whatever they may be considered, still
two kidneys, generally well-developed, are always present among fishes,
except, perhaps, in the amphioxus. These organs, as a rule, are distinctly
separated anteriorly one from the other, but sometimes more or less
united posteriorly : they are placed close to the vertebral column, but
separated from the abdominal cavity and the intestines by the peritoneum.
To this rule there are exceptions, as among teleosteans, which possess an air-
bladder where it likewise is outside the peritoneum, and is often more or less
adherent to the under surface of the kidneys.

The size as well as the form of the kidneys is subject to great variation :
in some teleosteans they are compact and restricted to the forepart of the
abdominal cavity, but in others they extend far forward to the base of the
skull and posteriorly, as seen in the eel, &c, to between the muscles of the
caudal region, while their surface may be smooth or lobulated. The ureters,
which receive the urine from the urinary tubes, are generally two in number,
rarely three, while as many as five from either kidney, each of which
separately opens into the urinary bladder, have been found in sticklebacks.
These ureters are usually placed along the inner edge of the kidneys, and
may be continued to their outlet, or they may unite in an urinary bladder
which opens behind the vent by a short urethra sometimes confluent with,
sometimes distinct from (and is then behind) the genital opening, while
occasionally it is situated on a papilla. Among the Plagiostomes the ureters
are short, and each forms a dilatation which anastomosing with its fellow,
ends in a single urethra, and having received the vasa deferentia in the
male opens into the cloaca behind the end of the rectum. Variations in the
positions of the various parts are seen among the Ganoids and Dipnoids.
Among the Cyclostomes, as the lampreys, the kidneys are in the form of an
elongated gland, with detached portions, the ureters coalescing prior to
terminating in the urogenital papilla. In the hag a long duct extends
through the abdominal cavity, sending off short transverse branches, each
of which ends in a blind sac, where a ganglion that secretes the urine is

lvi INTESTINAL TRACT.

placed. In the amphioxus the isolated bodies which are seen near the
abdominal pore have been considered as the kidneys.

LARGE ABDOMINAL GLANDS.

The liver generally occupies a large portion of the abdominal cavity,
being separated from the cardiac chamber by a species of membranous
diaphragm. It is most developed among the plagiostornes, and as a rule
contains a large amount of oil. Its form is subject to considerable variation,
but it is generally tabulated, the most simple being found in the amphioxus as
a diverticulum from the stomachic dilatation of the intestinal tract. As a
rule a gall-bladder exists, and although it is generally seen at its lower
surface, it -may be lodged inside the liver near its centre, attached to the
r ight lobe, or even be distinct from this organ, being merely connected to it
by the cystic duct. Bile is removed from the liver by one or more ducts,
which converge into and join the cystic duct, thus forming the ductus
choledochus or common duct of the liver and gall-bladder, which empties
itself into the intestinal canal, posterior to the pyloric end of the stomach,
while in the plagiostomes it opens in the duodenum.

A pancreas, as already observed, is found in many teleosteans, in the
sturgeon, and among the plagiostomes.

The spleen among fishes is found, except in the amphioxus, as a dull
reddish body of a rounded form, usually placed near the stomach or
commeucement of the intestines. It is subject to considerable modifications.

BREEDING.

Fishes are dioecious, and although hermaphrodites have been observed
in a few teleostean forms,* the sexes are as a rule normally present in
different ' individuals. Some are monogamous, as the snake-headed- and
tropical Ophiocejjhalus, perhaps also our common pike, and many others.
The majority, however, are polygamous, or perhaps mixogamous, in which
latter the males and females congregate for breeding purposes, those of the
former sex being in excess, and several attending on one female, or even
changing about to another.

Among most of the cartilaginous fishes, Gliondropterygii, of the order
Elasmobranchs, as sharks, rays, and skates, a congress takes place between
the two sexes, the arrangement of the sexual organs being somewhat similar
to what obtains among the higher vertebrates. The male organs are mostly

* Hermaphrodites have been recorded among the following British fishes : Perca fluviatilis,
S^rranus cabrilla, Scomber scomber, Labrus mixtus, Solea vulgaris, Gadus morhua, 0. merlangus,
Lota vulgaris, Esox lucius, Cyprinus carpio, Clupiea liarengus, Acipenser sturio.

BREEDING. lvii

compact, of a circumscribed form, and placed far forwards in the abdominal
cavity. The vasa deferentia communicate with the ureters and terminate
upon a cloacal generative organ, external to which on either side, and mostly
attached to the anal fins, are the claspers.' The female organs are (as in the
male) situated far forwards, and remarkable by the modification of the two
oviducts, which are not merely distinct from one another, but also from the
ureters, which latter terminate upon a prominent urethral clitoris between the
outlet of the oviducts. The ova are few, and the ovaries are comparatively
smaller than in osseous fishes. Different parts of the oviduct may be
functionally modified, being divided by a circular valve, which separates the
upper or narrow portion where the gland is placed which secretes the egg
purse, while the lower or uterine part is where the embryos' are formed
in the viviparous species. The ova are fertilized while still contained within
the oviduct, where the ova are delayed, and the young may be either
occluded in horny cases or even produced alive. Among cartilaginous
fishes of the ganoid order oviducts are present with small ova.

During the breeding season certain additional developments may occur
in some teleostean or bony forms : glands, as in some carps, may appear oh
the heads of fishes of either sex, while among the Salruonidas a knob shows
itself in the male sex on the extremity of the lower jaw in the salmon
and some trout. Likewise in a carp, Rhodeus amarus, found on the continent
of Europe, a long oviferous tube appears during the nuptial season, but as
in the case of the knob on the jaw of the salmon is subsequently absoi-bed,
while as a rule the female fish is larger than the male.

Considerable differences in the form of the male generative organs are
observable among the bony fishes, but at the breeding season, all that are
not sterile have a great augmentation in size. This organ, when arrived
at seasonable maturity, is commonly known as the " soft roe " or
" milt." It is not necessary for fishes to have attained adult size in
order to be capable of the reproductive process or the milt to be fully
developed, as this may be seen in the par or young of the salmon.
Without detailing the different forms in which these organs exist, it will
suffice to remark that when vasa deferentia are absent in the males, oviducts
are similarly wanting in the females, the parallelism between these organs
in the two sexes being, as a rule, very close. When the testis is single so
is the ovary. But in some cases, as in the Salmonidce, although vasa
deferentia are present in the male there are no ducts in the female. In most
osseous fishes the ovaries form two elongated sacs, closed anteriorly, but
posteriorly continued into a short and wide oviduct, which terminates behind
the vent and mostly before the urethra. The inside of these sacs is more or
less lined with the stroma, or a peculiar tissue within which the ova are
developed. In those forms in which the ova are hatched before extrusion,

lviii BREEDING.

the stroma does not extend to the hind portion of these sacs, for this locality
serves as a sort of uterus, and is furnished with a large albuminous secretion,
while internal incubation is going on. The products of the reproductive
organs may be set free in the peritoneal cavity, finding their exit at the
abdominal pore or pores : or these products may be taken up by the open
mouths of the fallopian tubes, or distinct tubes conduct them all the way to
their outlet.

The various modifications of the generative organs in true fishes are a
simple testis or ovary, but no excretory duct ; a partial oviduct united to the
ureter, but not continuous with the ovary ; or a testis having a long and
complex duct distinct from the ureter. Among teleostean fishes breeding
occurs in one of the following ways: 1. The eggs are hatched within the
female organs, as seen in the oviparous blenny, Zoarces viviparus (vol. i,
p. 211). 2. As in the majority of these fishes, the eggs having been
excluded, are subsequently fertilized by the male, the milt or spermatozoa of
the latter being brought into contact in the water with the ova or eggs of
the female, when this microscopic body (the spermatozoon) obtains access by
a minute orifice, termed the micropyle, into the interior of the ovum. In
short, during the breeding of osseous fishes the generative organs perform
the following functions : " Semination/' " ovulation/' " fecundation," and
" exclusion," to which in some forms is added that of " fcetation."

Simple as this process would seem to be, there are many interesting
questions about it which are still unsolved and require attention. If all
fishes' eggs were of one size, the micropyle and spermatozoids identical in
all forms, the specific gravity of all ova without variation, and all kinds of fish
propagated their species at the same period and took the same time in the
incubating process, we should soon arrive at a state of inextricable
confusion. There might be hybrids between salmon and minnows, perches
and bullheads, sticklebacks and carps : and were these hybrids to prove
fertile, in a comparatively very short space of time all land-marks would be
obliterated ; families, genera, and species would be things of the past. And
if this did occur, the result could be readily foretold ; now small forms obtain
sustenance in little as well as in large pieces of water ; but were these small
forms to merge into the larger, our brooks, our lesser streams and ponds
would no longer be stocked with fish ; for the size of the stream and the
amount of the food would be insufficient to maintain them in health, even
were it sufficient to sustain life. And could we hope for a hardy race from
young raised under such conditions? Or even were our fishes entirely
restricted to our larger rivers, what would occur ? Predaceous forms of
destroyers, perhaps man himself, would soon diminish, and possibly
annihilate them. Irrespective of which, deterioration in the size of parent
fish may be equivalent to diminution in the size of the offspring, such being

MIGRATIONS AND SEASONS. lix

one of Nature's methods of preventing the extermination of the race. For
decreasing their size will cause them to be less sought after, and it will only
be when the larger fish are left for breeders that larger offspring result. In
short, when man or other causes afford to fish sufficient protection, then
Nature assists in improving the race ; when man or other destructive factors
greedily kill all they can, then the breed dwarfs, and so possibly prevents its
extermination.

To which ever division fish belong, they are generally perceived at the
commencement of their breeding season migrating to localities most suitable
for the reception of their eggs and the bringing forth of their young. The
majority of marine forms seek banks, or are found nearer in shore or in
shallower waters than such as they inhabit at other times. This arrival of
gregarious kinds of mature fish occurs when they are ready for breeding,
while their eggs are deposited prior to their leaving, so whether they come
to perpetuate their race or seek food for preventing death in each individual
of the species, it eventuates that at these periods breeding usually occurs, as
may be observed in the herring or in the mackerel. Anadromous forms pass
up rivers, sometimes for long distances, and then deposit their ova : among
the most widely distributed of such is the shad, of which we possess two
species in the British Isles, both found in the Severn, but up which they
now rarely ascend in numbers to any considerable extent, due to weirs across
the river, deficiency of water, or else its poisonous condition. The salmon
similarly ascends from the sea to deposit its ova in rivers and streams, and
this instinct of migration or necessity for exchanging its locality to a suitable
breeding spot may be more or less observed among a large number of
members of the family.

The season at which breeding occurs varies with the family of fish and
the locality. This again is susceptible of further modification in accordance
with the temperature and perhaps composition of the water, the amount of
food procurable, and many other local circumstances. Likewise there is some
condition in the fish itself respecting which we know but little, but which
plays its part. It is easy to understand that during very cold winters
breeding is usually late, which may be partly occasioned by the ova taking
longer to hatch, as well as by the parent fish being later depositing its eggs.
The period at which the Sahnonidce in these isles breed may be roughly
estimated (unless under exceptional circumstances) at from the commence-
ment of September until the middle of January or February. In 1865
some brook trout eggs were despatched from Hampshire and Buckingham-
shire to Tasmania, and the first young reared in the Antipodes formed their
redds in July, 1869, or during the coldest season of the year (see vol. ii,
p. 60). But easy as this theory would be in order to explain the different
months fishes select for breeding purposes, there exist many exceptions

]x BREEDING.

which are still open to discussion. Some rivers are stated to have early and
others late breeds of salmon.

The same thing occurs in marine fishes ; thus there is not a month that
herrings cannot be found breeding around the coasts of Great Britain and
Ireland. In the United States the Fishery Department has ascertained
that the codfish Oadus morhua breeds during nine months of the year,
namely, from September until May.

Some fishes merely breed once a year, while others do so inoi'e frequently.
During the breeding-season a few forms, "as the salmon and the shad in our
fresh waters, and the herrings of our seas, appear to decrease the amount
of food they consume or even entirely cease feeding ; this may be necessary
in some gregarious marine forms for the following reason : Unless they
congi*egate together at this period there would be great danger in the
deposited ova not being fertilized by the milt, for we know that should such
Tiot take place in a short time in fresh water they do not become vivified.
Should, therefore, fish in this c ndition have to be roving about in search
of food there would be the possibility that large quantities of eggs would
be spoiled, while the forms which produce the greatest number of ova are
often those which live in large communities.

Whether breeding occasions any deleterious effects upon fish is capable
of more than one answer. Fresh-water forms that produce a moderate
number of eggs, or do so gradually, or at more than one period in the year,
do not appear to be so much affected as those which deposit large numbers
of ova, and complete this process in a short space. As a rule, the result of
breeding is that the parent fish goes out of condition, and continues so for
a longer or shorter period of time. Herrings, as soon as they are u spent,"
fall off in condition ; the salmon kelt becomes absolutely unwholesome, or
else so lean and flabby as to be unsuitable for the table.

Fishes' eggs are of various sizes, and this size is not in relationship
to the magnitude of the species thus a codfish has much smaller
eggs than a trout; and a common carp than a char. While some forms
deposit their ova in the sea, others do so in fresh-water, which may be
stagnant, semi-stagnant, or running. Some eggs are so light that
under certain conditions they may float, as of the cod in the sea.,
while those of the white-fish Goregonus are semi-buoyant, and those
of the herring sink : those of the gar-fish and its allies are attached by
filaments or tendrils to foreign substances, while others are likewise
adherent, due to a secreted mucus, as in the lump sucker (Liparis), which
deposits its ova on the inside of the valves of dead shells, as a butterfly does
on a leaf ; while the fresh-water bitterling, Bhodeus amarus, of Continental
Europe is furnished during the breeding season with a long oviferous tube
enabling it to insert its eggs within the valves of the fresh-water mussel.

EGGS AND NESTS. lxi

Among the curious pipe-fishes the eggs are transferred from the female
to the male, and in most of the species the duty of hatching them devolves
on the latter sex, for which purpose they are deposited up to the period
of the evolution of the young in ovigerous sacs variously placed (vol. ii,
page 256). In the horse-fishes {Hippocampus) in pouches under the tail ;
in our ocean pipe-fishes (Nerophu) in rows along the breast and belly.
Whether this phenomenon of carrying about the eggs is to protect them
from danger or in order to change the water in which they are kept may be
questionable, but as these fishes have several times been hatched in aquaria,
it would seem to be for the purpose of protection against foes. Similarly
we perceive siluroids, Artifice, of the Eastern and other seas in which
the males carry about the ova in their mouths, either continuously or
temporarily, and the young may be observed emerging from the ovum while
it is still in the maw of the male fish. Teleosteans, which have no oviduct,
as the Salmonidce, deposit their eggs detached one from the other ; but
such as possess oviducts often have them surrounded by a viscid secretion
formed from the lining membrane of the oviduct and agglutinating them
in lumps or cords.

The sticklebacks or pricklebacks of this country (vol. i, page 236),
whether marine or fresh-water species, form a nest for the reception of their
eggs, which has an entrance on one side and an exit on the other, so that
either parent can readily pass through. When the eggs have been safely
deposited in the nest, and the_ necessary fertilization accomplished, the male
takes charge, driving his help-mate off to a safe distance in order to prevent
her making a meal of the ova. Mr. Warrington ascertained that in a few
days in the fresh-water species the nest was more and more opened by
the male, evidently owing to the necessity for oxygenation, and he hovered
over it, causing a current of water to be propelled across its surface by
fanning it with his fins, and after about ten days the. nest was destroyed
and minute fry appeared, over which the male kept guard. Some of our
marine wrasses of the genus Crenilabrus have been observed to construct
nests, in which occupation both sexes assist. The river bullhead, Gottus
yobio, forms a hole in the gravel at the bottom of a stream, and here it
keeps guard over its eggs as well as over the infant progeny. - While in
tropical countries there exist many forms of nest-constructing fishes, and
the parents, more especially the male, protect the young until old enough
to shift for themselves.

In investigating single families of fish, or genera, it is interesting to
see how even closely related forms differ in the places where they deposit
their ova, or the period when they breed. Among the herrings we find
that the common herring is breeding in some one or other spot around our
coast almost every month in the year ; that it deposits from ten to thirty

lxii BREEDING.

thousand eggs, which are agglutinated together in a mass, and subsiding
to the bottom, attach themselves 'to sea-weeds or other suitable substances ;
let this nidus for the eggs be trawled away or otherwise destroyed, and
the herrings may permanently, or at least for an indefinite number of years,
migrate to a more suitable spot. The sprat gives eggs of about 0*04 in.
in diameter, and these likewise sink to the bottom, but not in a mass or
covered with adhering substance, as in the herring. The shad of our
waters has not yet had this question investigated, but in the United States
the Fish Commission find that in the species which is most prized there,
Clupea sapidissima, the eggs sink, but that they require to be kept in
constant motion. Those eggs which normally float are more susceptible to
atmospheric changes, and possibly this may occasion much loss. Thus in
one genus are forms in which the eggs are agglutinated into a mass, sink,
and become attached to suitable fixed objects : in another they simply sink :
whereas in a third, although they sink, they require to be kept in constant
motion.

If we take another family for investigation, as that of the salmon, trout,
and their allies, we find interesting variations. The common smelt, Osmerus
eperlanus, covers stones, planks, and suitable objects with its adherent
ova, and which are placed near the level of high water. These eggs
are furnished with fine filaments on their outer surface, which filaments
expand at their distal extremities into the form of a sucker for attach-
ment. The grayling deposits its ova about April or May, or even
earlier, on the gravel at the bottom of a suitable stream; they are not
placed in a nest and appear to be very delicate; their size is rather less
than seen in the trout. But the salmon, trout, and char fan up the gravel,
thus forming a trough wherein the ova are deposited, and subsequently
the nest, redd or rid, is covered over with the gravel, and here the eggs are
left to come to maturity. In all these forms the eggs are heavier than the
water in which they are deposited, still they are treated either by being laid
on the bed of the stream or below the gravel, but the fish culturist has
ascertained that this placing them within a bed or nest is not essential to
their hatching.

Before passing on from the eggs and how deposited, I must draw atten-
tion to a rather curious phenomenon, but too often seen, and which in its
most fatal form is known as fish being egg-bound dying, in fact, unable
to void their ova, similarly to fowls unable to lay their eggs, or higher ver-
tebrates which cannot bring forth their young. Some fish, as the herrings,
which exude their ova in the open sea, can scarcely be subjected to any
extraneous force in order to assist this process, but that such does take
place in some fishes has been ascertained. The gold carp, Carassius
auratus, is one of these forms, and the male (or rather relays of them) have

NUMBER OF EGGS AND IP PROTECTION IS NECESSARY. lxiii

been observed in an aquarium to roll the gravid female like a cask along
the bottom of the tank, and to continue this operation without relaxation
for a day or two until the wearied female has extruded her ova. The
female river lamprey is said to be assisted by the male twisting himself
around her, and so expressing the ova and milt, the suctorial mouths of
both parents being at this time attached to a stone or other suitable
stationary object. While it does not appear unlikely that the female salmon
or trout when forming the redd or nest by lateral strokes of the side and
tail portion of the body is by such active exertion assisting in ridding
herself of her eggs. It has been asserted that among these latter fish
when the eggs are ripe there is no power to prevent their escape, but at
Howietoun it is found that if the parents are placed in a wooden tank,
having smooth sides and bottom, and through which a stream flows, ovula-
tion may be deferred days, and even weeks.

The number of eggs deposited by teleostean fish is, as already remarked,
exceedingly vained ; thus, a perch of 1^ lb. contained 280,000 ova, one of
3 lb. 2 oz., 155,620; a ruff, of 4| oz., 205,000; an angler, of. 1 lb. 13 oz.,
1,427,344; a mackerel, 18 oz., 546,681; lump-sucker, 6^ lb. weight,
207,700, at 9 lb. 8 oz., 155,000 ; cod, at 11| lb., 1,800,000, but upwards of
3,000,000 have been taken from one; haddock, 21 lb., 169,050, at 9 T 9 ^ lb.,
1,839,581; coal-fish, at 21 lb., 8,260,000; pollack, 12 lb., 4,200,000;
hake, the roe of which weighed 15| oz., 1,500,000 ; ling, 20 lb., 19,985,400,
one of 100 lb., 160,000,000; burbolt, 128,000; halibut, 3,500,000; turbot,
5 lb. 9 oz., 14,311,200; plaice, 4 lb. 15 oz., 144,600; flounder, 24* oz.,
1,357,400, at 6| oz., 351,026, at 3 oz., 225,568, at 21 oz., 133,407; sole,
1 lb., 134,000 ; salmon, about 900 to every 1 lb. weight, but may exceed
this, one of 20 lb. contained 27,850 ; trout, about 800 to every 1 lb. weight;
charr, | lb., 1,230; pollan, llf oz., 6,156; smelt, 2 oz., 28,278, and in a
second the same size, 36,652 ; pike, 35 lb., 43,000, 32 lb., 595,200, 28 lb.,
292,320, a second 700,000, 24 lb., 224,640; carp, at 9 lb., 600,000,
16| lb., 2,059,750, 21| lb., 1,310,750; barbel, 7,000 to 8,000 ova; roach,
28 oz., 480 ; tench, 4 lb., 297,000 ; bream, 130,000 ; white bream, 108,000 ;
herring, 10,000 to 30,000 ; pilchard, 60,000 ; conger, 15| lb., 6,336,512 ;
the small numbers of the cartilaginous fishes have been already referred to.

One reason adduced for sea fishes not requiring protection at any period
of their lives is that they deposit so many eggs, and that these will suffice
to meet all and every device man may employ to effect their capture. Here
the zoologist may well inquire whether breeding in fishes differs from what
obtains in the remainder of the animal kingdom, wherein the powers of
increase have been apportioned to the needs of the individual, for where
man has interfered, as in birds, ground game, seals, &c, protection has had
to be afforded in order to prevent annihilation of the species. It would

lxiv BREEDING AND STERILITY.

seem that the various sizes, modes of deposit, and numbers of fish eggs, must
be on some definite plan, not a chance medley, destitute of any order and
deficient of any scheme. We observe, as in many other forms of life, that
the more voracious class, as sharks and rays, have fewer yonng than the
herring and the mackerel, that fish which give the most eggs take the least
care of their offspring, and, until the contrary is proved, we are justified
in assuming that where the most numerous eggs or young are produced by
a species, there the greatest destruction occurs, and' finally that fish have
only sufficient ova for the purpose of compensating for normal loss.*

But even when fishes' eggs have been deposited in order that they
should hatch it does not follow that it is only necessary to place them in a
hatching box, and then turn salt-water over marine ones and fresh-water over
those of our streams and lakes. The precautions to be taken by the fish culturist
I do not propose alluding to here, but certain physical phenomena are-very
important.

Some fishes are sterile from various causes. Thus the common eel, a
catadromous form, or one which breeds in the sea but passes, its life in fresh-
waters, is believed only to deposit ova once during its lifetime, and then
either dies or returns to the rivers, and is sterile for the remainder of its
life. It has been observed that among the Salmonidce sterile forms are seen,
but which are believed to be only temporarily so, as for one or two seasons.

Fish may also be sterile consequent on disease. Thus I have seen in a
mackerel the oviduct occluded due to disease having set up inflammation,
and occlusion of the outlet of the oviduct, and thus the preceding year's
eggs have been retained and formed a large tumour.

Eggs themselves, of course, may fail in hatching, due to sterility or
deficiency of fecundation, injurious surroundings, as by being carried by floods
and currents into unsuitable places, or consequent upon the effects of disease,
while shocks given to them during incubation produce monstrosities and if
severe., death. While fishes' eggs are more or less circular or oval, and of
varying- colours, being pea-green in some sheat-fishes or siluroids, and among
the Salmonidce they may be coral-red, yellow, or pure white, the herrings
usually have a slight pink tinge; those of the sprat are colourless.

I have already' remarked that fishes' eggs before they are fertilized have
a small orifice or micropyle into which the spermatazoon enters, but it is
evident in sea fishes that if the egg floats at the surface and the milt is
beneath, the chances of fertilization must be diminished, unless some means
are - taken to obviate this. Also that there must exist some mechanical
reason why fish eggs float in some forms, and sink in others. Of course, the

* As a rule fish hatched from small ova are feebler than those from large ova, and Ryder
remarks " some species leave the egg with the throat perforated and other forms do not." The shad
cannot swallow at the time of hatching.

EGGS. lxv

principal cause which makes eggs subside to the bottom is that their specific
gravity is greater than that of the fluid in which they are floating, unless
due to some, mechanical arrangement (as the presence of filaments) they
are attached to foreign substances, when they would sink or swim in accord-
ance with the condition of the body to which they were attached, as the
eggs of the marine gar (Belone) ; or a fish (as a perch) may have its ova in a
band-like state, when it selects rushes, reeds, or grass growing in the water
or a piece of wood or other hard substance, against which it (the female)
presses itself until one end of the band has become attached, then swim-
ming slowly away the eggs are voided. But sometimes eggs, as of the cod,
float in normally saline water, and questions have arisen as to the position of
the micropyle. Dr. Ransom in 1854 found that in the trout, salmon, and
grayling it corresponded to the centre of the germinal pole. Here the
formative yelk or germ collects, and having attached to it some oil drops,
always floats uppermost. In the Spanish mackerel and some other American
forms a single large oil sphere keeps them buoyant, situated at a point
immediately opposite the germinal disk, which is constantly inverted or
carried on the lower face of the vitellus, thus acting exactly the reverse to
what is observed among the Salmonidce. In the cod no oil drop exists, but
the egg is so light that it behaves like the foregoing. It is seen in the cod
fisheries that at the period of breeding the egg floats with the micropyle
directed downwards, and as a consequence the milters are found to swim
lower than the spawners, the milt must consequently ascend.

It will now be necessary to briefly observe upon the physical changes
which fishes' eggs have to undergo prior to their being rendered in a suitable
condition to continue the species. If we examine under the microscope the
ova of an osseous fish, as a stickleback, as remarked upon by Dr. Ransom,
we may perceive around the eggs before they are deposited and holding the
mass together is a viscid layer or secretion from the oviduct of the female.
This secretion will for some time resist the imbibition of water in the unim-
pregnated ova, so that they have been observed to remain flaccid at least
two and a half hours after immersion. Subsequently it seems to set round
the eggs, making them cohere firmly together. The egg itself may be said
externally to have a double cortical layer, the two being divided by an
interspace ; the outer of these, which is rather thick, may be termed
the yelk sac, and is in immediate contact with the second internal or
vitelline membrane which surrounds the yelk ball within the yelk sac.
The outer membrane of the egg is distinguished in one spot by a number
of cup-shaped or mushroom-like processes, which cover about one-fourth
of its surface and mark the .germinal pole. In the centre of these small
elevations is the micropyle, consisting of a funnel-shaped pit directed
towards the centre 'of the eu\ and continued 'inwards as a narrow tube with

lxvi BREEDING.

the inner end opened. This outer covering of the egg is changed by the
imbibition of water from an easily torn membrane into a firm elastic one.
The yelk-ball, or that portion surrounded by the vitelline or inner membrane,
contains those essential portions of the egg which are subsequently directly
transformed into the germ, and into which the micropyle opens. Between
the two layers is a space, small in the unimpregnated egg prior to the imbi-
bition of water, but which becomes filled, forming what has been termed the
breathing chamber, a space increased probably also in size by a contraction
of the yelk. In the stickleback this absorption of water from the outside
commences near the micropyle, and gradually extends throughout the
chamber ; but in most osseous fishes, Ransom observes, water enters freely
through the yelk sac, and the breathing chamber may commence simul-
taneously at all parts of the surface. It is only during this period when
absorption is going on that fertilization can take place, and the sper-
matozoon obtain access by the micropyle to the germinal spot. When the
air-chamber has been filled with water the outer covering of the egg hardens
and become elastic ; it is no longer soft and adhesive, and it " frees " itself
from what it is attached to.

In this place it is unnecessary to go further into the embryology of
osseous fishes, neither will it be required to prove that the elements for
resph'ation must be received through the outer coat from the surrounding-
water. Here, however, it becomes needful to point out that as oxygen
has to be imbibed through the outer covering of the egg certain mechanical
influences may be at work to prevent this absorption, and so to decrease
or altogether cut off the necessary aeration. In some fishes the breathing
chamber is very large, swelling the egg to as much as double its
original size, and it is evident that were these eggs fixed close together
prior to distension, one of two things must occur, either their due expan-
sion would be checked by one pressing against another, or some must
give way. .

I have already mentioned the eggs of the common smelt which possess
filaments that adhere to contiguous objects : if these filaments are torn off
the egg dies. Should many be placed together prior to imbibition they give
the appearance under the microscope after the air chamber has become
filled that they are honeycombed, which is due to the number of facets the
eggs show owing to pressure one against another. Irrespective of injury
from pressure, it is obvious that due aeration of the yelk will be stopped,
and as a result death will most probably ensue.

Fish ova, as of the Sahnonidce and of some other forms, have been trans-
ported long distances, as from Europe to the Australian Colonies, Canada,
and the United States. The first experiment of employing ice for the
purpose of conveying trout and salmon eggs through the tropics is recorded

CARRIAGE AND VIVIPICATION OP EGGS. lxvii

in volume ii (page 77). Davy ascertained many years since that ova in moist
air retain vitality several days, and tliey may safely be sent in damp moss.
In 1880 Max von dem Borne experimented on whether salmon eggs which
had been fertilized by the dry process (or such as had not been brought in
contact with water) could be transmitted long distances without the addition
of any fluid. This year 34,000 trout ova were despatched to New Zealand
in a modified refrigerating chamber. Moistened air passing in a current
through the chamber was kept down to a temperatui^e never below 32 deg.
or above 34 deg. fahr. The eggs were arranged in trays lightly covered
with moss, and the dead ones were daily removed. Nearly the whole number
reached their destination in perfect safety.

It has been suggested that such fish ova as are deposited at the bottom
of ponds might be transported long distances with safety enclosed in mud,
a subject worthy of trial, but great care would have to be exercised as to
the character of the water in which the experiment is tried. Fish which
deposit their ova on bushes are placed in boxes thus lined, but with movable
sides, so that they with the bushes and adherent ova can be transported in
carrying boxes to the desired localities.

The milt of fish has been successfully employed some time after being
taken from the parent; thus Sir J. Gibson-Maitland on November 25, 1879,
successfully fertilized some trout spawn with salmon milt obtained the night
before and corked up in a bottle. Likewise, as was long since pointed out by.
Bloch, ova or milt may be used obtained from fish which have been some
time dead. On November 29, 1883, 1000 eggs of the common brook trout
were thus treated at Howietoun with the milt of a par which had not been
dead many hours, but the result has been that there was insufficient vitality
in the milt to fructify a single eg;g. It has been remarked at Howietoun
that eggs from yOung mothers give a larger percentage of deaths than those
of older fish, this it appears probable affects the fertilizing property of
the milt.

The period which fish eggs take incubating is not only exceedingly varied
among those of closely allied species, but it is likewise affected by many
extraneous causes. Those of sea fishes, as a rule, would appear to hatch
in a shorter period than those of fresh water ones. The eggs of the herring
normally incubate in about three or four weeks, but the escape of the young
can be considerably delayed by keeping the water very cold, while its
saltness or the reverse exercises no appreciable difference. In the Baltic the
German Fish Commissioners found that with the water at 53 degrees the
eggs hatched in a week, whereas with the temperature of the water at
38 degrees they took six weeks. In the eggs of the cod fish the American
Fish Commissioners observed that hatching took place between the
thirteenth and fiftieth days, according to the temperature of the water, while

* '

Lxviii BREEDING.

Sars in Norway found some to hatch on the eighteenth day. The eggs of
the haddock in the United States required an average of nine days, and the
shortest period observed was eight days, while those of the coal fish, Gadus
pollachius, hatch in four or five days in water of modei^ate temperature.

But if we can find such a difference in the cod family as to the time-
required for incubation to be from four or five days to six weeks, still greater
variations are perceptible among those of the' salmon family. At Howietoun
the eggs of the smelt, Osmerus eperlanus, kept in the trout hatching house,
took about forty-two days, but on the water being a little warmer they came
out by the thirty-fourth day. In the same establishment, with the water
kept at about 44*1 degrees, the brook and other trout took from seventy-one
to seventy-two days ; the American char, Salmo fontinalis, seventy-three ;
and the salmon seventy-seven. But the foregoing are subject to wide
variations of time (by decreasing the temperature of the water), as of the
trcut up to 114 days, and the hatching of the salmon has been delayed to
the' 145th day, or even more, and acting upon this knowledge the eggs of
members of the Salmonidce have been transmitted in safety to the Antipodes.

Here I would draw attention to the various attempts which have been
made to prove that salmon can breed in salt water, a proposition advanced
by some estuary and shore fishermen, apparently in order to show that there
is no necessity to have any restrictive legislation on salmon fisheries, but
that everyone should be permitted to fish as he pleases, while the fish ought
to continue their species in the sea and their young to ascend rivers to be cap-
tured- a view long since shown to be entirely erroneous, and which is referred
to in vol. ii (p. 63). In fact, with the exception of catadromus forms,
as the eel, we do not possess any fresh-water fishes that breed in salt water.

At the Fisheries Exhibition of 1883, the Commissioner from Canada,
Mr. Wilmot, informed us that salmon can be detained in salt water until
ready to be stripped of their ova and milt, which can then be raised in fresh
water. But several experiments have all ended in one result, the eggs
having died in salt water, as have also all the young; consequently, if salmon
from any cause are prevented ascending rivers, and have to drop their eggs
in saline or brackish water, no young will be hatched, while eggs or young
placed in brackish or salt water will die.

I remarked in 1882 that at Sir James Gibson-Maitland's fish-ponds
at Howietoun, the Lochleven variety of trout produced eggs' of different
sizes in accordance with the parents' age. Thus fish hatched in 1876, or
six-year-olds, gave ova, thirty-two of which filled the length of a glass grill,
whereas those females which had been hatched in 1875, or seven-yeai'-olds,
furnished eggs twenty-seven or twenty-eight of which occupied the same
space. Not only does this occur in the Lochleven variety, but also in the
brook trout and the American char ; and Dr. John Davy found among

EGGS OF ONE SPECIES VARY IN SIZE. lxix

those, of our common char which he examined a variation in diameter
from 016 to 0'20 of an inch. Even in the common stickleback Ransom has
observed that all. the eggs of the same batch have not exactly the same
dimensions when ripe, and still less have those of different individual
parents. A similar variation in the size of the eggs corresponding to that
of the parent has likewise been noted from trout at Otago.

The same phenomenon has been observed in the United States, where
the Fish Commissioner on the M'Cloud River in 1878 remarked that the
parent salmon were unusually small, their average weight being under eight
pounds. This small size was stated to be undoubtedly caused in whole or
in part by the fishing at the cannaries of the Sacramento, where the 8 in.
meshes of the innumerable drift nets stopped all the larger salmon, but let
all the small ones through. The eggs when taken proved to be at least a
third smaller than those of most previous years, and the average number of
eggs to the fish .was about 3,500, against 4,200 in the previous year. In
this instance the smaller salmon produced the smaller eggs, but whether'
the decreased number was not due to the decreased size of the spawners
is not evident. Livingston Stone adduces another instance, asserting that
American trout or char living in spring water (which means deficient food)
develop smaller eggs than such as reside in brooks. Or poverty in food
has the same effect as younger and smaller fish in diminishing the size of
ova. This of itself would lead one to suspect that small eggs which may
be caused by deficient sustenance in the parent will not produce the largest
fry. This difference in the size of fish eggs, which among Salmonidce
increase in bulk up to a certain age, must have very important bearings
upon their artificial breeding. For the size of the micropyle must be in a
certain ratio to the size of the eggs, consequently larger eggs of the same
species will admit larger spermatozoa than smaller ones. It has been
maintained by some fish culturists that very great difficulties, sometimes
even amounting to impossibilities, occur in crossing trout with salmon, or
rather fecundating the eggs of trout with the milt of the salmon. As this
was not found difficult at Howietoun when the eggs were taken from fish
that had been some years in the ponds, whose eggs were approaching in
size those of the salmon, it appears to me that the difficulty is merely a
mechanical one, due to the size of the micropyle.* This, I believe, is a com-
plete solution of how to obtain crosses between the salmon and the trout.

This brings us to the consideration of whether larger eggs, the produce
of older or better fed fishes, will eventuate in an augmented size of the
offspring, irrespective of the question of changing the locality they inhabit,
or increasing the space or amount of water they reside in. Two sets of

.* Mr. Arthur tells us, that in 1880, one trout at Otago yielded about thirty eggs double the size
of all the other ova she passed, and they hatched out just the same as the rest.

]xx BREEDING.

Loclileven trout were stripped on the same day in November, 1882, the
parents of one being- sis-year-olds, and of the other seven-year-olds. The
eggs were similarly treated, hatched in the same room during January and
February, 1883, and turned into two ponds of similar size, each 100
feet long, and fed by the same stream. In the upper pond were the
progeny of the six-year-old ; in the lower, which received the stream after
passing through the upper pond, those from the seven-year- old. On
November 29, 1883, the fry in the upper appeared to average about
2| in. in length, and in the lower about 3 in., showing that the offspring
from the older parents had developed the most satisfactory results. I
selected three of the finest fish from each pond ; those from the upper
averaged a little over 3 in., while from the lower they were nearly 4 in.,
or at nine months of age those which were the progeny of seven-year-old
parents were nearly a quarter longer than those which were descended
from six-year-old parents. In March, 1884, I again visited these ponds,
and found the foregoing results were being still continued. The ponds
were subsequently cleaned out and restocked with young trout, the offspring
of parents of the same age, and in August, 1884, there was no perceptible
difference in the size of those in the two ponds. If the eggs of older fish
(up to a certain age) give larger and quicker growing offspring than do
those from younger ones, it shows us that fisheries in which only small
parents are left as stock may not improbably suffer a deterioration in
the race, and this, irrespective of food, may be one cause of how fisheries
fall off.

Finally arises the consideration of what benefit to mankind in general
are investigations into the breeding of fishes ? Here I shall merely enter
upon a few, some being now carried out successfully, some experimentally,
and, lastly, some theoretically suggested. In a state of nature salmon and
trout eggs are subject to destruction from many foes, and it has been
computed that although each female is provided with many hundreds of
ova, only about one in nineteen of such as are left in the natural redds
ever hatches, and only four or five of these out of 30,000 eggs arrive at
maturity and are fit for the table ; whereas, taking Howietoun as an
instance, it is found that from 90 to 95 per cent, hatch in a well-constructed
fish cultural establishment, while the loss among the fry is inconsiderable.
Irrespective of this the young can be turned into the rivers at times when
they would be more able to shift for themselves than if they resided there
from their earliest days. Without entering into the reasons, still it is
patent to the most casual observer that the interests of the upper riparian
proprietors of salmon rivers are not always in agreement with those of the
estuaries and lower waters. The former consider the fish are reared in
their territory, but that the produce is almost exclusively captured at or

SELECTION OP FORMS AND LAND-LOCKED SALMON.

lxxi

near the mouths of the rivers. The lower proprietors in some places
believing that the upper proprietors are helpless do not always listen to
their complaints in an amicable manner, considering themselves masters
of the situation. But as a knowledge of fish culture extends it will be
fouud that, did they know it, exactly the reverse is the case. The upper
proprietors might obtain such splendid breeds of trout for their rivers
that they would not care to continue preserving the salmon. Or they
might introduce a land-locked salmon, or one which does not descend
to the sea but passes all its life in fresh water. Or hybrids between
the salmon and trout might be sterile and not take on migratory
propensities.

I have shown how by selection of parents larger and more rapidly
growing trout can be raised, and these fish, provided they can obtain
sufficient food, attain to a size now but seldom seen, but when observed being
termed iSahno ferox. Thus eggs sent from small brook trout in Hampshire
and Buckinghamshire to New Zealand have developed into 20 lb. and 30 lb.
fish. But to obtain these fine breeds great care must be taken- in keeping
the parent fish in suitable ponds ; if breeders of different years can intermix
then the benefits of age may be lost. Thus it is the finest forms come from
seven or eight year old parents, as has been ascertained at Howietoun, where
the young the progeny of such are now being kept to be breeders in their
turn, and it does not seem an unreasonable expectation to see in a few years
such a semi-domesticated breed as these islands have never witnessed, and
all this due to the enterprise of a single energetic individual.

Then there are the so-termed land-locked-salmon, which might prove
invaluable to upper riparian proprietors, or those who possess large inland
lakes, containing sufficient food for their sustenance, or where descent to the'
sea is rendered impossible from any cause. In Maine, in the United States,
there is found a variety of the salmon which has taken on a lake-life and is
said never descends to the sea ; many of the eggs were sent over last year to
this country, and the young reared from them were exhibited in the Fisheries
Exhibition. The Canadian Commissioner observed that in some of the rivers
of the Dominion of Canada the same variety obtains. From Lake Wenern,
in Sweden, a few of these land-locked forms were received at the Fisheries
Exhibition, some of which weighed as much as 151b.

It has been asserted that no salmon in our country has ever developed
ova without first descending to the sea. Here, again, facts at Howietoun
entirely disprove this assertion. Some young salmon were hatched in March,
1881, and in. December, 1883, while still in the ponds some females were
found with ova, and one on being removed in August, 1884, had numerous
large eggs. These, being bred from, may form the nucleus, after one or
two generations, of a land-locked race.

XXII BREEDING.

HYBRIDS.

It has been conclusively shown that hybrids are found both among marine
and fresh-water fishes, whether raised artificially or existing in a wild
condition, as might be anticipated when we remember that the milt of a male
might readily in water attain a proximity to the egg of one of another species
or genus. This has been more especially recorded among the carps
(vol. ii, page 157,- &c.) and the Salmonidce (vol. ii, page 80, &c.) "In
1869/' says Livingston Stone, " I crossed the yellow perch, Perca flavescens,
with the glass-eyed pike, Lucioperca, both percoids, using perch eggs arid
perch-pike milt. The' result was an embryo which continued to develop
till the seventh day, when the development suddenly stopped entirely,
although the embryo did not die. At this point it resembled the embryo of
the same age of the yellow perch proper." Fraisse asserts that he has been
able to effect by artificial fecundation a hybrid offspring between the trout
and theburbolt. Leuchart remarks upon having reared hybrids between the
female salmon and male trout, and from these he procured in due time milt and.
ova which were fertile. Other observers again have asserted that fertile
hybrids are only of occasional occurrence, and that eggs, produced from
them may be incapable of fertilization. The hybrids between the salmon and
trout instituted at Howietoun in 1879, have, so far as has been examined,
given sterile offspring.

Some experiments were made by Sir James Gibson-Maitland, Bart., at
his fish-hatching establishment at Howietoun. On December 24, 1881,
20,000 eggs of the Lochleven trout were fertilized by salmon milt and
hatched on March 9, 1882. On March 13, 1884, there were 212 successfully
transferred to Craigend. Among these were six above 10 in. in length, but
some were as short as 2\ in., showing the great range of variation as to size
which maybe found in a single batch of young from the same parents and
kept under exactly similar conditions of existence. One examined in
August, 1884, was found to be a sterile female.

On November 29, 1883, .4,500 eggs of the Lochleven variety of trout (of
the season of 1875) were milted from a par of the salmon raised at
Howietoun, and the mortality among the eggs was 1 in 46. But although this
was so, the curious fact remains that the milt of the par in this instance was
insufficient to impregnate the trout eggs, so as to produce young in a strong
and healthy condition, while weakly alevins either die or are next to useless
for stocking purposes. Although some thousands of the young emerged from
the eggs, all were at once seen to be suffering from what has been termed
dropsy or blue swelling of the yelk sac, which proved fatal before long to the
majority, only about 100 remaining in August.

HYBRIDS. lxxiii

On November 29, 1883, 3,695 eggs of the American char were milted
from a par. The following is the monthly record of the number of dead
eggs which were .removed. In December 144, in January 1,527, and in
February 401, or a total of 3,372 dead eggs. On March 12, 1884, 7 were
alive, but' in an unsatisfactory condition. The amount of fertilization
received by American char eggs from young pars is evidently less than that
afforded to ova of the Lochleven trout, the relationship being perhaps more
distant between a char and a salmon than between a salmon and a trout.

On November 15, 1882, 2,000 ova from a Lochleven trout were milted
from an American char (Salmo fontinalis), and on November 29, 1883,
about 250 were living. On March 13, 1884, 211 were alive. When' first
hatched these hybrids were much malformed, monstrosities being numerous,
while blindness in one or both eyes and bull-dog deformities of the snout
were common. Some semi-albinos were nearly blind. In August, 1884, all
were doing well, and a male having been examined was found to be full
of milt.

This experiment was repeated on November 29, 1883, when 3,000 ova
were taken from a Lochleven trout and milted from an American char.
The deaths were in about the proportion of 1 in 17 eggs. The young
were looking healthy in August, 1884.

On November 15, 1882, 8,000 ova of an American char were fertilized
from a Lochleven trout, and on November 29, 1883, only 16 were alive,
and on March 12, 1884, 8. Their state was unsatisfactory, the largest
being a little over two inches in length. In this experiment when first
hatched the young fry were greatly deformed ; many had crooked spines,
atrophy of the posterior portion of their bodies, with a general deficiency of
fins, especially of the caudal. In August, 1884, the last 7 were doing well.

November 15, 1882, about 9,000 eggs of an American char were milted
from a Scotch variety of char, and no monstrosities (as seen in the other
two crosses) resulted, and 91 lively young fry were present at Howietoun
on March 13, 1884, while in August, on one being examined, it was found
to be a male nearly ready for breeding. On November 12, 1883, the
experiment was repeated, and the eggs hatched on January 26, 1884.
On March 13, 1884, there were at least 500 young alevins alive and doing
well. On December 1, 1883, a third experiment was carried out. These
hatched February 22, 1884, and upwards of 100 young were present on
March 13, 1884.

' Different species of Salmonidce may be crossed, as the Lochleven trout
and char, or various forms of char, and the young would seem to be fertile.
If crosses between salmon and trout are sterile, and no longer migratory in
their instincts, the question arises, will they be in season all the year round ?
Could the fish culturist raise a non-migratory sterile form, what an addition

lxxiv BREEDING. INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS.

it would be to the lake fisheries, also to the upper waters of our rivers, with,
of course, the drawback that the numbers would have to be occasionally
replenished.

INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS.*

The instincts of brutes have received more attention from biologists than
those of fishes. Some naturalists have asserted that the lives of the finny
tribes are destitute of the joys and sorrows generally appertaining to verte-
brate animals, attributing to them an almost vegetative existence. But
fishermen are well aware that they are as eager to escape from danger or
avoid capture as are the inhabitants of the earth or the frequenters of the
air, which compels us to question whether their lives are as joyless as have
been represented, if anger or affection are really unknown passions to them.

Fishes have certain means of demonstrating their emotions, as they are
capable of erecting their dermal appendages, as scales or fin-rays, under the
influence of anger or terror, similarly as feathers or hairs are erected in birds
and mammals. But special expressions, as of joy, pain, astonishment, &c,
we can hardly expect to find so well-marked in fishes as in some of the
higher grades of animals, in which the play of the features often affords an
insight into their internal emotions. Eyes without movable eyelids, cheeks
encased with bony plates or covered with hard scales are scarcely suitable
for smiling, while external ears are wanting. Still we perceive among fishes
a distinct expression or change of colour, which is but slightly developed or
even absent in many of the higher vertebrates. When one sickens its
brilliant tints become less and less, or even entirely fade away, while the
same result may follow being vanquished by a foe. But when in good
health and residing in suitable localities, especially during the breeding
season, their colours become vivid, and even a temporary accession of anger
may cause a similar result.

When investigating, if fish are or are not destitute of affections, it is
necessary to ascertain whether they show such to their companions or to
human beings, irrespective of what they may exhibit to their partners or
their offspring.. Mr. Arderon found that on separating two ruffs, Acerina
cernua, the one he kept pined away, declining food until its companion was
restored, when both became contented (vol. i, p. 12), and the same observer
gave an account (Phil. Trans. Eoyal Society, 1727) of how he tamed a dace,
Leuciscus vulgaris, which would lie close to the glass watching its master.
Marital affection I have alluded to when referring to the breeding of fishes
(page lxi).

* See "Instincts and Emotions in Fish," by F. Day. Linn. Soc. Journal, xv, p. 31.

AFFECTION AND ANGER. lxXV

Manifestations of anger have been well described in the accounts we
possess of the Fighting Fishes of. Siain. . After remarking on the cock-
fights of that country, Sir J. Browning adds that there is a little bellicose
fish which attacks its fellows with great ferocity, bristling its fins, and
exhibiting the most intense excitement. One of these, seeing its reflection
in a glass, will violently advance head foremost against the shadow. Dr.
Cantor observed that when this fish, Macropodus pugnax, is in a quiescent
state, with its fins at rest the dull colours present nothing remarkable.
But should two be brought within sight of each other, the little creatures
become suddenly excited, the raised fins and the whole body shine with
metallic colours of dazzling beauty, while the projecting gill-membranes,
waving like a black frill round the throat, add something grotesque to the
general appearance. In this state it makes repeated darts at its antagonist,
but both when taken out of each others' sight instantly become quiet. Even
the little sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, of our own fresh waters show
great combative propensities (vol. i, p. 241), and after a fight between two
examples a strange alteration takes place almost immediately in the
defeated party ; his gallant bearing forsakes him, his gay colours fade away,
he becomes again speckled and ugly, and. hides his disgrace among his
peaceable companions, who occupy together that part of the tub which
their tyrants have not taken possession of. He is, moreover, for some time
the constant object of his conqueror's persecution. Here we perceive how
the disgrace of defeat affects the spirit of the vanquished, which, reacting
on his health, causes his brilliant hues to fade away. The victor, on the
other hand, exulting in his victory, becomes more resplendent; he does not
forget his triumph, and considers it no disgrace to occasionally it lord over
his fallen foe. .

Everyone who possesses an aquarium is aware how spiny-rayed fishes on
being angry or frightened at once elevate their fins. The globe-fish,
Tetrodon (vol. ii, page 271), are able to inflate their bodies when the spinate
dermal scutes become erected; also the file-fish, Balistes (vol. ii, page
267), has been observed by Mr. Whitmee to swim rapidly past its antago-
nist and graze its side with its file-like lateral spines. In the Ohio a sheat
fish or siluroid is found in which its first dorsal ray is strong and bony,
and employed to kill others of a smaller size, for which purpose it swims
beneath the fish it intends to attack, then suddenly rises and wounds it
repeatedly in the belly. I have personally observed an Indian siluroid,
Macrones vittatus, lying on the wet grass, which on being touched erected
its dorsal and pectoral spines, and also emitted a sound resembling the
buzzing of a bee, which was evidently a sign of anger or terror. Couch
observed of our sticklebacks, Gasterosteus, that the bite of these little furies
is so severe that he had frequently known it, when inflicted on the tail, to

lxxvi INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS.

produce mortification and death. These fish also use their lateral spines
(ventral fins) with most fatal effect, and he had seen one during a battle
absolutely rip his antagonist quite open, so that it. sank to the bottom
and died.

Certain fishes are endowed with specific modes of showing their being
affected with anger or terror, although these same means may also be
employed for the purpose of obtaining food ; among these is the electric
eel, Gymiiotus electrlcans, of South America, which is furnished with
electric organs of such power as to be capable of causing death even to
large animals. Humbolt and others have recorded how the Indians, when
they desire to capture this fish, drive horses and mules into waters which
they inhabit, when, as soon, as disturbed, these eels attack the intruders'.
They first glide under the horses' bellies and prostrate them by repeated
electric shocks, which by degrees diminish in intensity, for long rest and
nourishment are required to repair the galvanic force which they have
expended. It has been held that the possession of this power affords them
means of protection against alligators, while it is certainly employed
against other fish which it requires as food, but its onslaught on intruding
horses may be due to anger or terror. Even in British seas we find the
torpedo, or cramp ray (vol. ii, page 330) endowed with this electric power.
The electric shock which it occasions is thus described by Kempfer. In
some cases the nerves are so affected that the person struck imagines all the
bone's of his body, and particularly those of the limb that received the blow,
are driven out of joint. This is accompanied with a universal tremor,
a sickness at the stomach, a general convulsion, and a total suspension of
the mind. Quick-swimming fish have been found inside these torpedoes,
and would appear to have been captured by means of electric shocks.
Whether we are to consider the attacks made by sword-fishes, Xiphiidce
(see vol. i, page 143), upon passing vessels are due to anger at being
disturbed, or under the impression that they are attacking their enemies,
the. whales, is questionable; but it is a well-ascertained fact that the planks
of numerous ships, especially in the Indian seas, have been pierced by the
strong rostral apparatus with which these fishes are provided either for
offence or defence.

Fear is frequently observable. Thus some small forms were kept in an
aquarium along with an Antennarius, and were evidently in great dread of
their carnivorous neighbour, whom they continually tormented. But when
attacking it they always took care to strike at its posterior part, although
this was protected by a sort of coral. Many forms when hooked or netted
will empty their stomachs, either through fear or else to facilitate their escape,
by lightening their load. Along the sides of the pools and some of the
rivers of India, gulls and terns may occasionally be seen congregating and

FEAR, NUPTIAL SEASON, AND INHERITED INSTINCT. lxxvii

beating the water with their wings, so as to scare the fish, when they fall an
easy prey. Sars has observed how pollack succeed in alarming a school of
sand-eels, Ammodytes (vol. i, p. 329), and driving them towards the surface,
when they become a prey to gulls from above and these fish from below.
Similarly, porpoises have been observed to swim round masses of gregarious
fishes, and when they were alarmed, feasting on them with impunity : the
gar-fish, Belone, of the British seas (vol. ii, p. 146)' may then be observed to
mount to the surface and crowd on each other as they press forward. When
still more closely pursued, they spring out of the water to the height of
several feet, leaping over one another in singular confusion, and again sink
beneath. The flying fish, Exoccetus, similarly springs out of the water to
escape its rapacious pursuers (vol. ii, p. 155.) Members of the herring
family, Olupeidce, would seem to be those in which more predacious forms
appear to induce .terror. Thus the gar-pike, in the eastern seas, may
frequently be seen pursuing anchovies along the surface of the water.
Every angler is aware of the natural timidity of fishes, and keepers know
how easily poachers are able to deter salmon from ascending fish-passes.

During the nuptial season, teleostean fishes (page lvii) have more
resplendent tints than at any other period of the year, and this may be
for the purpose of mutual attraction, as seen in the salmon, stickleback,
&c. While in the United States a male of the John Darters, Etheostoma
blennoides, kept in an aquarium, underwent, almost in an instant, an entire
change of pattern in the colours on its body, upon the introduction of a
female fish of the same species. Even after two weeks the novelty had not
worn off, though its body-colours varied much from hour to hour, but had
not reverted to it's original dress.

Inherited instinct is a subject in fishes worth attention. Due to it the
young of many sorts return from the sea to the localities where they were
originally reared, and in their turn produce offspring inheriting the same
tendency. Similarly, we may perceive inherited fear; a young fish just
hatched will hide itself from the gaze of other animals.

Some fishes have the curious instinct of obtaining assistance from other
forms in their search after food or their migrations from place to place; this
latter being done in order to. profit by the greater powers of locomotion in
, their host, from whose body, however; they draw no sustenance, but are
commensals, merely partaking of such food as comes within their reach.
Among these latter we have the sucking-fish, Echeneis, as an occasional
wanderer to our shores (vol. i, p. 106). The Fierasfer (vol. i, p. 328),
which is another rare visitant off our coast, is often known, to seek its
fortune inside the sea-cucumber or Holothnria, upon which it may be said
to be a " free messmate." It works its way into its host tail foremost,
while many of the young of our commoner forms seek refuge in Medusas,

lxxviii

INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS.

and similar forms (vol. ii, pp. 281, 285, 297), phenomena very commonly
observed in the Eastern seas.

Without entering- more fully into details, it seems possible to claim for
this class of animals the possession of attachments, whether as conjugal
feelings, paternal or maternal affections, or even platonic friendships.

Salmon Pass.

CLASSIFICATION. lxxix

CLASSIFICATION.

As to the system followed in this work I have simply accepted, so far as
I possibly could, that employed in the British Museum Catalogue, as
specimens are arranged in the National Collection in accordauce with it. At
the present time Ichthyologists may be considered as engaged in sto ring-up
facts from which after a longer or shorter interval a general system will have
to be evolved. Whether therefore one commences with the spiny-rayed
teleostean perches, or begins from the higher and more specialized groups
of sharks and their allies, seems to be a matter of trivial importance.

The following is the classification adopted :

Sub-class, I Teleostei -<

'Order 1. Acanthopterygii, vol. i, p. 1.

2. Anacanthini, i, p. 271.

3. Physostomi, ii, p. 46.

4. Lophobranchii, ii, p. 256.

5. Plectognathi, ii, p. 267.

, . TT _, r Order 1. Ganoidei, n,'p. 278.

feub-class, 11 Uhondropterygii ! _ _,. . ..... or

C ,, 2. Elasmobranchn, n, p. 285.

Snb-class, III Cyclostomata, ii, p. 355.

Sub-class, IV Leptocardii, ii, p. 366.

Although it is easy to refer to Families as groups of Genera and the
latter as an assemblage of species, this merely brings us to the real question
at issue, which is, what is a species ? For determining this two lines of
investigation may be followed : (1) the morphological or that which relates to
structure and development, or wherein individuals agree one with another
but differ from other fishes ; and (2) the 'physiological or such as pertain to
function, as whether the forms under consideration are normally capable of
fertile union one with another (but not so with those of other groups) , being all
descendants of a primitive race of ancestors. A variety is one which differs
in some characters from the type of the species, but between which a distinct
intermediate gradation has been observed. While a local race may be also a
variety but wherein no such connecting chain has yet been discovered. What
some consider a variety others would deem a local race or sub-species; thus
a permanence of variation has been held to constitute a species, but its
instability a variety.

Irrespective of the foregoing there are other forms of variation ; thus
larval fish as the Leptocephalus (vol. ii, page 239), or young of the conger
and some other fishes, may have their development arrested, in which
condition they may still live for a longer or shorter period. Monstrosities are
generally the result of some abnormal condition of the embryo, sometimes

IxXX CLASSIFICATION.

occasioned by shocks or injuries when fission may ensue occasioning double-
headed monsters ; or crossing two distinct species would seem to set up
various- abnormal structural results. Analogous variation, or where an
animal varies towards some allied form, has not, I believe, been observed in
fish. There is also atavism, or the reversion towards the original type.

In addition to zoological classification, fishes are likewise divisible in
accordance with their distribution and habits ; thus some may be termed sea
or marine forms, while others are fresh-water residents. Also there are
species which observe no such undeviating peculiarities, as they are observed
to roam from one of these localities to the other, especially such as are
generally found in brackish water.

Marine forms are likewise subdivided in accordance with the areas
they principally frequent ; thus inhabitants of the open sea are known as
pelagic : such as enter fresh waters for breeding purposes as anadromous :
while the along-shore forms which are restricted within a tract up to 80 or
100 fathoms, rarely entering fresh waters or being found in mid-ocean, as
littoral.*

Fresh-water forms are those which pass their entire lives in fresh waters ;
while such as live in fresh waters, but descend to the salt water to breed, are
termed catadromous.

If we now attempt further divisions, commencing with marine forms, a
difficulty meets us so soon as we try to classify the various sea-fishes into
residents of certain zones of depth, the majority changing their feeding-
ground at different periods of their existence. They may also be influenced
directly by heat and cold, sunshine and darkness, storms and calms; or
indirectly by how these influences affect the products on which they feed.
Thus occasionally pelagic forms are observed in vast numbers at the surface,
where as a rule they are generally absent. The young also of many pelagic
forms pass their infantile life in the littoral zone, but when adult retire into
deeper waters. The Antennarius is found in some portions of the globe,
living near the surface in its early age, revelling in the pleasures of light and
warmth ; but as time creeps on, some have been observed to sink to the
bottom, where they can indulge at their ease in a sluggish existence, if it can
be a pleasure to them to live where seasons are absent, aud day and night
unknown. The deep sea forms of animal life are observed to be mainly
composed of more or less modern shallow-water genera, and their allies, which
have extended their range into the deep sea zone.

In spite of the foregoing difficulties further subdivisions of fish have been
instituted, thus in marine forms we have such as inhabit regions through

* A. Agassiz considers the littoral zone as up to 100 or 150 fathoms, or an extension of the coast-
line to a depth at which the direct action of the sun's rays is limited : that from it in a slope up to
450 or 500 fathoms is a continental zone where the diminution of temperature is rapid ; beyond this
is the abyssal, where there is a low temperature varying little from freezing-point.

GEOLOGICAL APPEARANCE. lxxxi

which light penetrates more or less as in the littoral zone, where sea- weeds,
corals and shells are found and which may be termed the fauna of light :
whereas beyond this zone a region of darkness obtains. Pelagic species are
normally observed to be more or less restricted to certain zones of depth or
bathymetrical regions and are known as surface, median or abyssal forms.
While fishes of the fresh-waters are found frequenting rivers or fluviatile
forms, or else passing their lives in lakes or ponds or lacustrine species :
such as reside in large pieces of water may likewise select the shores and
surface waters or the deeper portions of the lake.

GEOLOGICAL APPEARANCE.

Among the many interesting questions relating to fish, assuredly not the
least so is when did they first appear in the waters of the globe which we
inhabit ? And for an answer we have to ask the Geologists, who assert
that the lowest type of vertebrate life first occurred near the close of the
Silurian epochs at the base of the Ludlow rocks, where certain spines, jaws,
teeth and a cephalic buckler of probably a Pteraspis, as well as coprolite bodies
containing crinoids and molluscs, have been obtained, but no other portions
of true piscine skeleton. In the " Devonian " or " Old Eed Sandstone,"
remains of fish in a more perfect state and in larger numbers are found, so
much so that this strata has been termed the "age of fish." Some of the
Silurian forms seem to have continued into the Devonian, and at this period
ganoids and sharks became predominant but no trace of segmentation of the
vertebra has been observed ; ganoids and sharks are very abundant in the
Carboniferous and Permian rocks which show the end of the Pakeozoic epoch.

Up to the Mesozoic epoch fishes possessing heterocercal tails (page ix)
were the ordinary type, but now they commenced to diminish, and the
homocercal (page ix) form began to obtain predominance ; in short, in the
earliest times the posterior termination of the vertebral column was very
similar to what we now find as an embryonic condition of teleosteans,
persistent formerly, transitory now. The fishes in the Lias besides developing
homocercal tails commence to show ossification and segmentation of the
vertebra3, and Leptolepis a teleostean form, has been supposed to have
been discovered. Among the fishes of the Oolitic strata a further advance
towards the fauna of this period occurs, while rays become more numerous.
In the chalk or cretaceous era, although Chondropterygians are found, it is the
Teleosteans or bony forms, as already observed, that obtain predominance,
and so on through the Tertiary period to our times.

It has been pointed out that had such fish as Cyclostomata or Lepto-
cardii existed in Silurian or Mesozoic epochs it would hardly be expected that

/

lxxxii DIFFUSION OF FISHES.

they would have left any trace unless it were their horny teeth. Indeed
specimens of such teeth, or those of molluscs or annelids have been discovered
in the Lower Silurian and Devonian strata.

Considerable difficulty has arisen as to whether the ancestral forms* of
fish were fresh-water or marine, and if the latter, whether they were first
littoral, subsequently pelagic, or originally pelagic. At the present time,
investigations tend to show that although marine species not infrequently
enter, breed, and even take up their permanent abode in fresh waters, such
is not the case with strictly fresh-water forms, which do not voluntarily
enter the sea, or if there would succumb. True, a flood from a river or
inundation along a coast may temporarily so alter the composition of the
sea- water that a fresh-water form may reside in it or travel by it for some
distance along a coast-line, but they die when the water becomes normally
saline.

M. Agassiz, when giving some interesting observations on this question,
remarked that although at present it is not plain that fluviatile types on the
whole are superior to the marine ones, still among the higher forms of
Chondropterygii as in ganoids, the bony pike, Lepidosteus, of America, the
Polypterus of tropical Africa^ the Lepidosiren or Protopterus of the west
coast of Africa, and the Geratodus of Queensland, are restricted to fresh
waters. While even in groups considered to be marine the fresh-water forms
possess characters generally denoting their superiority over their marine
representatives.

DIFFUSION OF FISHES.

Fishes may have been dispersed over the surface of the globe in several
ways, as marine ones through the ocean, and fresh-water species along rivers
and watersheds, and in exceptional instances along coasts. For similarly to
other forms of life they possess a natural tendency to increase as well as
disperse when not checked by climatic or physical difficulties, or other
external causes. As assisting in this diffusion there are uncertain agencies
which can only act occasionally, but by means of which fresh-water forms
may be dispersed, such as floods carrying them from one watershed into
another, which although contiguous at their sources may lead in entirely
different directions. In some species it has been shown that if fecundated
eggs, as of trout, are kept moist and cold they can be conveyed in safety for
long distances (page lxvii), while salmonoid eggs removed from the maw of
a trout have been hatched. This renders it not improbable that should a

* In embryo-fish the developmental changes when correctly ascertained are a guide to the
classification of the species.

DISPERSION AND DISTRIBUTION. ]xxxiii

hawk or eagle have secured such a fish and carried it away to the mountains
in order to feed its young or consume it at its leisure, should the eggs fall
into water they might similarly hatch and the breed spread. Geese and
ducks (or even flying insects, as some beetles) might likewise spread fishes
or convey the ova partially frozen attached to their bills or feet, while it has
been suggested that they might likewise be conveyed among the wet feathers
of birds or the fur of otters.* Among such forms as the perch, wherein we
see stringy ova, such might be carried long distances attached to sticks or.
grass or even to the feet of herons, grebes, &c. McCleay (Proc. Linn.
Soc. N. S. W., iii, p. 15) notices how a marine fish, Therapon unicolor, had
been found in a dam near Warialda, to which place the ova was supposed to
have been conveyed by birds : Davy also suggests that glaciers may have
assisted in the dissemination of ova.f

DISPERSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. .

That marine fishes may become temporary or permanent occupants of
fresh waters and so change their condition of life has been observed by fish
culturists for centuries. Anadromous forms as the salmon ascend into fresh
waters to breed, there its eggs are hatched and the young reside until suffi-
ciently mature to follow their parents' mode of life. Should the return of
marine species to the sea be prevented, this is not necessarily fatal, for the
form may take on a fresh-water life. In the tropics it is common to find true
marine fishes in pieces of fresh water not far removed from tidal influence,
due to their having entered these places while the monsoon rains were at their
height, the rivers and swamps full, when .they had become carried, perhaps
by a high spring-tide, over a bank, but as the waters fell they became
imprisoned in their new situation and unable to return to the sea. Similarly
sea-fishes rove into our fresh waters after food, conclusively proving that such
change does not necessarily occasion their death, while here they may remain
and continue their race as observed in the northern portion of the Baltic
(i, page 54).

In India, marine fishes are frequently observed ascending rivers for
predaceous purposes as far as the tide extends or even further. Therapous
are not uncommon in the Hooghly near Calcutta, while I have taken a sea-
perch, the " cock-up," Lates calcarifer, as far inland as in the river at Pegu

* Pontoppidan (Natural History of Norway, ii, p. 139) remarked that at the top of Varne-set
and many other high places in Haranger, fish are taken in ponds which have no communication with
other ponds or rivers. He suggests whether they have been there since the flood; or 'if birds of
prey have carried the spawn or young fry up there.

f Dr/Stoliczka found fishes living in Tibet in fresh water 16,000 feet abpve the level of the sea, '

.

lxxxiv DIFFUSION AND DISTRIBUTION.

in Burma, and a species of saw-fish, Pristis Perrotteti, upwards of four feet
long, in the Mahanuddi river in Orissa, in fresh water and at least forty
miles from the sea. M. de La Gironniere found a saw-fish inhabiting fresh
waters in the Laguna de Baij, Luzon, and which was identical with those in
the Gulf of Manilla. Gill has observed upon a saw-fish and a shark being
taken in Lake Nicaragua. Advantage has been taken of the knowledge of how
marine forms will live in fresh water, and the Romans turned it to a practical
account by forming fresh-water vivaria wherein some marine fishes were
kept. Mr. Arnold has been similarly successful in Guernsey (vol. i, page 229),
and Colonel Meynell in Yoi'kshire (vol. ii, page 123).

The intolerance of fresh-water fishes to sea-water* is greater than of
marine ones to fresh. Such forms as perches or sticklebacks, whose ancestors
were probably marine, are more tolerant of saline water than the more strictly
fresh-water species as carps. This question, of course, is most important
as regards the dispersion of these forms, for should they not be able to live
in anything but fresh Water, for them to extend from one point to another
practically requires a land connection. Lubbock tells us that on sea-floods
occurring in the Norfolk Broads, the first fish to suffer are the tench, pike,
bream, and roach ; perch bear a strong admixture, but catadromous eels are
unaffected. If, as is the case in Oceanic Islands, as the Anclamans of the
Indian seas, we find fresh-water fishes similar to those on the mainland and
at Ceylon, it seems reasonable to suppose that although the two localities
may be hundreds of miles distant, a land connection must have existed
between them at some antecedent period of the world's history. If volcanic
islands are searched true fresh-water fishes are absent, unless they have
obtained access by accident, or been placed there by man. Respecting the
northern limits of fresh-water fishes it has been ascertained that they are
absent from regions where ice is nearly or quite continuous.

Abyssal forms (see page lxxxi) are found in the deep abysses of the ocean,
where there is an entire absence of light obtained from the surface, but
whether there are not present means for the production of luminosity I have
already touched upon (page xxv). Deep-sea fishes have either very large
eyes, similar to nocturnal land animals, or else they are quite blind, and as
regards these organs they show a considerable resemblance to what is
observed in such as inhabit waters in dark caverns. Recent investigations
would seem to show that from eighty or a hundred fathoms in depth up to
two hundred fathoms the size of this organ increases, in order to collect any
rays of light, but beyond this last depth both large and small eyes are found ;
the latter forms have also usually tentacles, for the purpose of feeling,

* As bearing on this point, marine Medusa are very intolerant of fresh water, but a fresh-water
iorm having been discovered, it was found to be even more intolerant of sea-water than the marine
ones are of fresh (Nature, June 24th, 1880).

ABYSSAL AND PELAGIC FORMS. lxXXV

whereas at the most profound depths both eyes and tactile organs are
absent. Deep-sea forms are either pale, colourless, or of a single tint;
and as already remarked (page xiv), the tissues which connect their
hard structures together are weak ; while such as are . brought up from
great depths have their bodies expanded, and even burst, due to the
removal of the pressure of superincumbent water, as has been observed
(page xliii) .

The temperature of the sea at 500 fathoms is as low as 40 F., even
under the equator in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ; below 2000 fathoms
it is not more than a few degrees above freezing-point, except in peculiar
instances of land-locked seas. Almost everywhere at 500 fathoms, and
everywhere at 1000, there is nearly an absence of currents, and move-
ments must be very slow and probably quite imperceptible to the resident
animals ; as a consequence of this similar condition of life the deep-sea fauna
show no zones of distribution in depths below 500 fathoms.

M. Regnard has made experiments with water respecting the amount of
pressure a fish will sustain : one destitute of an air-bladder, or in which it
had been evacuated, he found might be submitted to a pressure of 100
atmospheres, equivalent to a depth of 650 fathoms, without injurious effects;
at 200 atmospheres it became torpid, but soon recovered on being removed;
at 300 atmospheres, equivalent to about 2000 fathoms, it died. But among
other reasons for failure in this last experiment, the pressure was more
rapidly induced than would occur in nature, were a fish to change its
habitat.

Some abyssal forms are dwarfed, perhaps from cold or deficiency of food ;
others, perhaps due to absence of foes, are almost gigantic.

Many deep-sea forms have an enormous development of the mouth and
stomach, thus enabling them to swallow fishes even larger than themselves,
probably in order to retain a stock of food sufficient for some time, all being
carnivorous, for at certain depths Pteropods dissolve, at greater distances the
Globegerina are similarly lost, possibly the sea-water itself assisting, as
when alkaline it can absorb an additional amount of carbonate of lime.
Doubtless oxygen decreases with depth of water, but some is present even
in the deepest.

The number of animals in the sea decrease as the depth increases, and in
the deep abysses a varied repast sinks from the surface ; while as no plants,
unless parasitic, are found, all food must descend from above, assisted by
shore debris and vegetable matter carried down by rivers and which reach
the sea-bed.

Pelagic fishes (see page lxxx) are more numerous in tropical regions than
in our own, and not a few are cosmopolitan, while they often follow their
food into the littoral zone. Some are rapid swimmers and pursue their

lxxxvi GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

prey, while others, as the Antennarius, drift about on sticks or seaweed in
accordance with the action of winds and currents. Among them are some
which ascend to the surface during the night-time, and may be possessed of
luminous organs (page xxv), common to them, and likewise to some of the
deeper abyssal species.

Littoral forms (see page lxxx), although constantly migrating within the
limits of their own zone, or even extending their range to within the localities
frequented by pelagic species, will often decline to pass deep-sea ravines to
opposite banks, or cross over ledges of rock.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BRITISH FORMS.

Among the nineteen genera of fresh -water fishes which inhabit the British
Isles, the following are, (I) common to the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions :
1. Gasterosteus, 2. Perca, 3. Gottus, 4. Lota, 5. Salmo, 6. Thymallus,
7. Coregonus, 8. Esox, 9. Leuciscus, 10. Abramis, 11. Sturio; (II) forms
restricted to the Palaearctic region : 12. Acerina, 13. Gobio, 14. Tinea,
15. Abramis, 16. Alburnus ; (III) genera present in the Palaearctic and
Oriental regions : 17. Gyprinus, 18. Gar as silts-, 19. Nemacheilus ; (IV) found
in the Palaearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions : 20. Barbus.

Among the foregoing, eleven, or more than half of the British fresh- water

genera of fishes, are common to both. Arctic regions, while those numbered 1,

3, 5, and 7 have marine representatives. Nos. 2 and 11 are frequently found

in salt water, the former being closely connected with the marine perches,

and Lota, possibly the remnant of a glacial ocean, is closely related to marine

forms ; but Leuciscus, Abramis, and Esox are distinctly restricted to fresh

waters, yet are found in both regions, whereas the sea as at present existing

would form an insuperable barrier against their normal extension from one

point to the other. It has been advanced that all evidence points to a

continued mild climate in the Arctic regions through Cretaceous, Eocene,

and Miocene times, whereas had the North Atlantic between Europe and

North America been closed, although such might have raised the temperature

of these isles, it must have increased the cold in the Arctic regions by cutting

off the gulf stream. Appearances, as regards the distribution of mammals,

seem to point to there having been probably on more than one occasion, but

for brief periods during the tertiary period, a land connection between

N.W.Europe and N.E. America, and to this the distribution of the strictly

fresh-water genera of fish would seem to lend countenance.

Gyprinus and Garassius appear to have been forms introduced into our
isles, while the little loach Nemacheilus is found in a continuous chain of
many species throughout the Palaearctic and Oriental regions.

OF BRITISH FORMS. lxxxvii

We have now to consider whether fresh-water fishes in their distribution
lend any countenance to the theory that Ireland was formerly united to
continental Europe; also that a great portion of Great Britain became
submerged, but a re-elevation of land occurred ; and finally that Ireland was
separated from Great Britain, and subsequently the Straits of Dover opened.

Among the nineteen British genera thirteen are present in Ireland : Lota,
Barbus, and Albumus, local in England and unknown in Scotland, are
absent from Ireland; so likewise are the local races of Thymallus, introduced
north of the Tweed during recent years, while the only recorded Acerina in
Scotland, is one specimen said to have been obtained off Troup Head in Banff-
shire, possibly an error. Leaving our common bull-head, Coitus, as anabsentee
from Ireland, where, however, Yarrell believed it to be found : Wallace's
contention that the distribution of the species of our Salmonidaa confirms
the view that the races of fresh-water fish in Ireland differ from those in
Britain, is founded on two mistakes : first, he considers varieties as species;
secondly, even were they species, he mis-states where they are found. If,
however, we turn to the Lencisci, we do find the roach, L. rutilus, the chub,
L. cephalus, and the dace, L. vulgaris, to be absent from Ireland, and also
more or less from Scotland unless introduced. Fresh-water fishes, while they
do not refute the disseverance of Ireland from Great Britain previous to the
division of the latter from continental Europe, do not add any material
confirmation to the' statement.

Respecting the geographical distribution* of our marine forms, I have
alluded to it when describing the families and genera, and consequently
shall limit my remarks first as to whether similar species exist in distant
regions of the globe, and secondly, how they disperse. M. Valenciennes,
in 1824 ("Mem. du Mus.," xi, p. 265), drew attention to the great
resemblance that existed between the fishes inhabiting the Mediterranean
and those of the seas of South Africa ; while Dr. Keller has ascertained

* Errors in the geographical distribution of species are not infrequently due to insufficient care
having been exercised in testing the accuracy of statements as to from whence the specimen had
been obtaiued. An example of sucking-fish (Echeneis) was sent me in a bottle of spirits as having
been trawled at the Nore in May, 1880, which was so far correct that it had been thus taken, bottle
and all. It is easy to perceive how accidents might occur trawling such examples as the one I now
record. Had the bottle been broken and a sucking-fish found in a trawl at the mouth of the
Thames, it might have obtained access into a local collection, and when the species became
recognized it would most truly have been asserted to have been captured at Southend. Turton has
assured us respecting the North American bony pike (Lepidosteus osseus}, that " it is rarely found
on the Sussex coast," probably because Berkenhout, in his " Outlines of Natural History," records
one two feet long : also Stewart (" Elements," i, page 374) has remarked upon its occurrence in
the Frith of Forth. If these specimens were received they may have come from a wreck, or were
perhaps thrown overboard by a passenger or sailor. Even in 1880 the tropical Holacanthus tricolor
was erroneously asserted by Dr. Giinther to have been obtained at the Islaud of Lewes (vol. i, p. 41).

lxxxvih MIGRATIONS AND FOOD.

that eleven species of fishes from the Mediterranean have penetrated via the
Suez Canal into the Red Sea, and twenty-five have reached at least half-way
from the Bed Sea through the same canal.

The following species identical with British forms have been taken in the
seas of Australia, but not in the intermediate intertropical region : Oaranx
trachurus, Zeus faber, Scicena aquila, Argentina sphyrcena, Engraulis
encrasicholus (variety), Clupea sprattus, Conger vulgaris, Orthagoriscus
mola, Galeus canis, Acanthias vulgaris (variety), Echinorhinus spinosus,
Rhina squatina.

It has been abundantly shown that fishes of colder climes do not unfre-
quently migrate towards warmer regions, but when doing so keep further
out from shore in deeper waters and colder areas. Although it seems
difficult to admit that fishes with a physoclistous form of air-bladder could
migrate in the cold water under the tropical sea, and thus, as it were,
reappear in the southern temperate ocean, still in nature we do see identical
forms in these two widely separated places. But in their younger stage
all fishes with air-bladders must have the connecting tube with the
alimentary canal pervious, and it is not so difficult to consider that in some
it might abnormally remain patent through life, giving them the same facility
of evacuating it as seen in physostomous forms, while M. Regnard's experi-
ments already alluded to (p. lxxxv) show what a large amount of pressure
fishes will bear without fatal effect, while in nature they would gradually
accommodate themselves to such changes.

MIGKATIONS AND FOOD.

Most fishes are subject to migrations, which are either seasonal, which is
consequent upon climatic changes, or for the purpose of reaching a suitable
spot for the continuation of their race (page lix), or diurnal or nocturnal, to
obtain food for the nourishment of each individual. This latter is mostly
dependent on temperature, certain conditions of the water, and the supply
of sustenance. An irregular appearance of migratory shoals of marine
forms, as the mackerel, anchovy, herring, pilchard, or sprat, may be
consequent upon their pursuing some peculiarly abundant and desirable
food, or else be caused by their having been alarmed by some undesirable
enemy, for fear may cause shoals to vary their direction ; while I have
observed that in the Indian seas, when from any reason the sardines have
remained away, voracious forms which prey upon them were likewise
absent.

Temperature evidently exercises a considerable influence, and Baird

pood. lxxxix

observes of the anadromous salmon, herring, and shad, of the United States
of America, that their journeys are simply from the mouths of rivers
by the nearest deep gully or trough to the outer sea, and that the appear-
ance of the fish in the mouths of the rivers along the coast at successive
intervals from early spring in the south to near midsummer in the north, is
mostly due to their taking up their line of march at successive epochs from
the open sea to the rivers they had left during a previous season, induced
by the stimulus of a definite temperature, which, of course, would be
successively obtained at later and later dates, as the distance north-
wards increased.

Having ascertained what minute forms or descriptions of life are sought
out by migratory fish as food, it next becomes necessary to ascertain what it
is that governs or controls their migrations, as currents, soils, temperature,
atmospheric changes, or the existence of some still more minute food on
which they themselves subsist ; also what are their enemies or their friends,
and the conditions which favour the presence or absence of either class.
The surface of the ocean everywhere teems to a greater or less extent with
animal life, but this cannot subsist without a vegetable basis, both being
very susceptible to atmospheric vicissitudes.

When desirous of investigating what constitutes the food of fishes,* it
soon becomes evident that the inquiry branches off in many directions as to
whether the fishes are marine or fresh-water, and what districts (page lxxx)
they chiefly frequent : and as researches are extended, the nutriment
consumed by the young in their different stages until maturity is attained.
While the fish culturistf and observer will have to find out and ascertain
what are the influences which assist in developing the food or act injuriously
upon its growth or distribution. Augmenting the numbers of fish in pieces
of water is often undesirable without having previously ascertained whether
a sufficient amount of food would be present for their wants.

Among fishes, although we have predaceous, herbivorous, and omnivorous
species, there are few which will not prey upon any animal less powerful
than themselves, while marine forms are said to be able to withstand hunger
longer than those of the fresh waters. The majority of forms feed during the
day-time, although some prefer the earlier morning or the evening hours ;
others again, as the Liparis, would seem to forage about at night-time. The
sucking-fish, Echeneis (page lxxvii), uses its host as a means of conveyance
from place to place, so that it can change its locality : while the myxine
consumes its host ; and the electric ray (lxxvi) takes its prey by means

* See " Food of Fishes," Fishery Conference Papers, F. Day, 1883.
t See " Fish Culture," F. Day, 1883.

XC MIGRATION AND FOOD.

of shocks. Under the head of each species I have endeavoured to give an
account of the food each is most partial to. While in captivity some fish eat
what they reject or are unaccustomed to when in a state of natui'e :
some forms in aquaria will consume, if they can obtain it, more than is
wholesome for them.

If .we look at a newly-hatched fish we see a large sac or the yelk or
umbilical-sac dependent from its throat, in it noui'ishment is contained on
which it has to subsist for a longer or shorter period, and when absorbed it
must seek food for itself, and this in the period when the fish culturist finds
it so difficult to procure suitable diet for his small charges.

Around our coasts are distributed various kinds of sea-weeds, thus
where the bottom is rocky we find brown algEe (Fuci), and further out the
red form (Floridi). But, as already observed, with increasing depth
vegetation becomes less, or should sea-weeds drift to sea, they subside and
constitute soft black mud, wherein worms, molluscs, crustaceans and other
marine animals have their home and find their subsistence, while they in
turn form food for fish. Professor Mobius (Die Nahrung der Seetiere) at
90 to 95 fathoms in the Baltic, where the bottom consisted of plastic clay,
found very few worms : in the Mediterranean, south-east of Sicily, at
1700 fathoms, where the bottom consists of yellowish clay, the British
exploring expedition found no traces of animal life. But in the southern
parts of the North Sea, at 20 to 25 fathoms, and with a muddy bottom, such
is found to be alive with small crustaceans, worms, snails, molluscs,
and echinoderms, and as a result with fish which live there and prey
upon them. Irrespective of the foregoing vegetable substances, floating
sea alga?, which form food to marine animals, and sometimes micro-
scopic forms are so numerous as to render the surface almost turbid.
Diatoms live in every sea, and are consumed by pelagic animals, as Salpaa and
Pteropods. Likewise all rivers carry organic matter into the ocean, rendering
the bottom rich and a resort for the invertebrate animals, as well as the fish
which prey upon them ; while currents which carry plants and small marine
creatures from place to place must likewise influence the migration of fishes.
In short, the temperature, saltness, purity of the water, currents and depth
of the sea must each and all exercise a great influence upon animal and
vegetable life, also the character of the neighbouring shore, as regards its
geological formation and whether fertile or barren, rocky or sandy, and the
amount of surface drainage which flows into it.

The food consumed by fresh-water forms has been more closely inves-
tigated than among marine species, and it is only by knowledge of what
is required, combined with care and constant attention in carrying such out,
that private fish-pond culture can be made profitable. Leaving them

GROWTH AND SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS. XC1

to nature and withdrawing control is almost as ruinous as if arable lands
were to be left to be self-sown : while want of food may be occasioned
by too large a population of small and inferior sorts which starve the
remainder.

During cold months, also during the breeding season, a cessation in
taking food may occur in some forms (page lx), but during such periods as
they are on the feed they may obtain it from the bottom or soil over which
the water flows or is placed, from mid- water as substances which are washed
down or subside from the surface, &c, or from the surface itself as flies or
vegetable food.

Although the growth of fish is often irregular, as a general rule they do
not alter their form to any very great extent from what they are when
young to what obtains during mature life; still the comparative increase of
certain parts to that of the entire animal may not continue the same. Thus,
the relative size of the eye to that of the head decreases, the armature about
the head may diminish or disappear, the form of the snout as seen in saw-
fishes may change (plate lxix) as well as the character of the fins (page ix) .
While in - some pelagic forms Hemimetamorphosis may occur, or very
considerable alterations in their growth and development which have not
infrequently occasioned misunderstanding as to the genus or even family
to which the young individual belongs. More complete metamorphosis is
observable in the lampern (vol. ii, p. 362), while the deciduous external
gills of foetal sharks, rays (plate clxv), and a few other fish, may almost be
deemed to belong to this group.

Secondary sexual characters likewise induce changes. Thus, although
the male salmon has a knob-like tubercle on the lower jaw, the young has
none, but is similar to the female (page lvii). The skin may change,
becoming more rough in one sex, and spines appear most developed during
the breeding-season, as in the rays (vol. ii, p. 329). The teeth likewise
may be different in adults, of the two sexes. Other instances are alluded to
in the following pages.

The size of some fish may increase more rapidly under certain conditions
than it does in others ; a few seem to bear confinement easily, and grow
large when well fed in an aquarium. In the Southport Aquarium turbot
received, 3 inches across in size, became in two years 10 lb. each in weight,
and after two years more they further augmented to 20 lb. Many forms
will live when in a contracted space of water without increasing in size.
While degeneration in size may be owing to local causes, as want of
sufficient nourishment, but be entirely distinct from degeneration in
structure or function. In short, growth may greatly depend on the food
which is obtainable, and which fish have usually to disperse and follow after,

sen

MIGRATION AND FOOD.

in their turn becoming a prey to the larger species. As the eggs of
marine invertebrates are deposited at the same time as those of many fishes,
the fry of the latter find minute food (the young of the former) ready for
their wants, so fine, indeed, that they are only obtained by straining the water
through gill-rakers.

EEL-TRAPS.

BRITISH FISHERIES. XC111

BRITISH FISHERIES.

Our fisheries afford employment to various manufacturers, traders,
and fishermen, but their immediate uses are variously regarded by different
classes, the fishermen chiefly concerning themselves with what they can
obtain at the present time, regardless of future years' supply. The public
mainly interest themselves in the cost of the article when brought to
market, while the Economist bases his conclusions respecting their value in
accordance with their reputed produce, or should the supply be unable to
meet the demand, he unhesitatingly advocates the use of more destructive
agencies under the belief that the sea is inexhaustible, and augmented
captures are equivalent to increased productiveness ! But it may be asked,
is the sea, if the stock is not artificially replenished, inexhaustible ; is it a fact
that what man removes from the ocean is but an infinitesimal quantity to what
is consumed by birds and the numerous other enemies of the finny tribes ?

In order to ascertain if fish are increasing in numbers, decreasing, or
whether the supply is stationary, investigations ought to be continuously,
systematically and impartially made into the size of those captured (omitting
such as pertain to migratory shoals), and if such is augmenting or lessening, also
is their condition better or worse than it was ? Should investigations lead to
the belief that fisheries are being unduly depleted, it ought to be noted in
what families of fish this is occurring, as well as the reputed cause, while
in marine forms it is necessary to investigate whether the fishermen have to
go further out to sea to obtain their captures than was foi'inerly the case,
if the killing power of the nets has been increased, and whether more men
are now required to obtain the same amount of fish than was the case a few
years previously. If we refer to former times, we find the inshore fisheries
were very productive, similar to those of every other country sparsely
inhabited by man, but as years went on and the population augmented, an
increased supply of fish became a necessity. Man brought into use
more killing methods, and in every part of the globe this has been
followed by a diminished inshore supply. Almost everywhere we hear
of the decline of our inshore fisheries, and the consequent imperative
increase in size of our trawlers, and, although the price of fish has largely
advanced, they are compelled to go further out to sea to obtain
remunerative captures. It appears, unless we disbelieve the evidence from
most localities around our coast, that inshore fishing is becoming com-
paratively unremunerative, and many assert that this commenced at the
same period that trawling became more common, and the regulations for
sea-fisheries were abolished.

XC1V BRITISH FISHERIES.

t

For the purpose of arriving at conclusions respecting the condition of the
sea-fisheries, it would be well to briefly cousider of what do the more
important classes of fish used as food consist ? It must be evident that what
would benefit sharks and dog-fishes might be inimical to herrings ; cod-fishes
might be deleteriously affected by what would be harmless to sprats and
mackerel : while our soles and flat-fishes might be entirely destroyed
without such doing any damage to the wrasses. Although it seems
improbable that any species of sea-fish could be exterminated by man, it is
certainly a fact that he is able to annihilate a fishery or ' drive the fish
away from where he can capture thern, which has the same effect on the
cost of the article.

Our markets are largely supplied with sea-fish from three principal classes :
(1) such as come in large assemblages or shoals, as the mackerel, herring,
pilchard, and sprat, and which may be considered, as a rule, to be surface
swimmers; (2) mid- water and bottom-feeders in the littoral zone, as the
cod, haddock, and their allies, which are predaceous in their habits ;
(3) ground-fish, as soles, turbot, and other flat-fishes. One of these classes
being in a satisfactory state does not necessarily prove that all the
others are. If the cod-fishes were exterminated, this would remove
one more of the enemies from the herrings, and might in fact be conducive
to their increase.

Herrings may be scared away from a district by several causes,* and
have been known to absent themselves for years, perhaps the surface food
which they consume may have been deficient in quantity, or even absent ; or
they may be driven further out to sea, and breed there', resulting in the young
taking on deep-sea proclivities, and probably forming a deep-sea race. If
these shoals no longer frequent the shores, the amount of excrementitious
deposit which would fall from them would be lost to the invertebrate forms
which subsist in such places. Irrespective of this, herrings off the east
coast of Scotland being now further out to sea than was the case a few
years since, larger, boats have to be employed by fishermen, while there is
no harbour accommodation for them ; consequently storms are more fatal
than formerly. It is to be regretted that our Fishery Inspectors do
not yearly collect general fishery statistics for the United Kingdom ;
there are no means of finding out whether coarser kinds are, or are not,
taking the place of the better sorts in our markets ; soles may be as abundant,
in regard to numbers in 1883 as in 1882, but it would be desirable to know
if their size has augmented or diminished.

It has been said that doing away with fishery laws has been purposely
effected in order that sea-fisheries should be left to man, to work them

* Star-fishes have increased enormously along the American shores, due to herrings and other
fishes, which feed on their spawn, having deserted the inshore ground.

FISHERY .LEGISLATION. XCV

according to his individual caprice, untrammelled by any restrictive
enactments, as such only tend to upset the " balance of Nature." While
protection, it is asserted, is only necessary when the habits of any fish
compel it to live throughout the year in a confined area to .which man has
access, or to pass once or more in auy year into some narrow space
commanded or capable of being commanded by man. But it seems to have
been . overlooked that man, left to fish as he likes, when he likes and where
he likes, does not act impartially in fisheries. He' does not destroy every
form indiscriminately, thus maintaining " a balance," but merely such classes
as he desires for food. The mackerel and the herring are taken in millions,
but the shark, the dog-fish and the porpoise are practically left unmolested,
and in this way any balance would not be "maintained" but "upset." The
haddock and cod are being destroyed to an enormous extent, and appear
as a consequence to be decreasing, both in size and quantity : this again
may tend to deprive gregarious fishes of one of their natural enemies. The
mussels, crabs, and Other invertebrates, which form the food of the inshore
fish, being unprotected, are diminishing around our coasts, and this due to
the action of man, for when protection has been afforded, as off the coast of
Norfolk, a great increase almost immediately took place.

Our markets are supplied from two distinct economic divisions of fisheries ;
the first, such as crabs, lobsters, and eels, wherein a foreign supply keeps
the price down, and consequently the fishermen would have to preserve these
fisheries in a tolerably fair condition, or else, with prices restricted to a
certain maximum amount, they would be unable to supply the markets.
The second class, or mainly fresh fish, cannot as a rule be furnished from
abroad, consequently the price will rise or fall with the supply. If the
supply is small the fisherman receives a commensurate augmentation in
money he is no loser, it does not signify to him if the market has an
insufficient amount. Or if quantity is required, still that the better class of
fisheries are impoverished is of as little concern he can fill up with inferior
sorts, such as a few years since were rarely seen in our markets. The
importance of fresh-water fisheries is not solely in a ratio as regards the
amount of their productiveness, but also in accordance with the character of
the contiguous people, as to whether they are fish-consumers or reject such
an article of diet : the sparseness or the reverse of the population, and
facilities for transport to distant places. Where no regulations exist for the
protection of inland fisheries, and should other circumstances be equal, that
country or district which is most densely populated by man will be least so
by fish. Individuals would rather live by fishing than by agriculture, because
the trouble of capturing the finny tribes is less than that of tilling the soil.
It becomes simply a matter of catching food without a thought of future
supply. As, however, the human inhabitants augment, watery wastes

XCV1 MODES OF PISHING.

(wherein fishes were previously protected by grass, reeds, or trees) become
drained and cultivated, and predaceous man increases his modes of
destruction.

Respecting our present fresh- water fisheries, that of the salmon is the most
valuable (vol. ii, page 70), but it almost seems as if our legislators are being
misled, and therefore ignore the axiom that the good of the fish and fisheries
should be of greater consideration than the interests of private individuals..
A free passage for the fish* to their breeding-grounds and an unpolluted
river are certainly necessities for an abundant supply, and although poaching
does injury, such is a mere fraction in the element of destruction compared
with the battle for life in the lower waters, which is a far more efficient
reason for the paucity of fish, whether such is owing to legalized fixed
engines, or an excess of netting in the lower reaches or along the tidal
shores.

MODES OF FISHING.

Possibly the most primitive mode of tidal fishing was the construction of
pounds or enclosures into which fish entered with, the flood, but were left
impounded at the ebb. Here they would be removed by hand, spears, or by
a small net. In some places it may have been found necessary to erect a
rough wall across the outlet which would permit water to escape but detain
the large fish, or a trap might be inserted at this spot. Advancing still
further are wicker-work labyrinths, and next stake-nets, made on various
plans. In the late " Great International Fisheries Exhibition," these various
modes of fishing from India were shown in a consecutive series : f dip-nets
were seen in frames, or used as purse or lave-nets, so that they can be
dragged or pushed up narrow pieces of water, or a row of fishermen can
employ them along the coast. If these purse-nets are taken from their
frames, and have their free extremities weighted by sinkers, we obtain the
cast-net ; or connect several of these cast-nets together, when it is desired
to drag a piece of water with them, and we have a sort of ground-seine.
Then we have set-nets or trammels, seines employed in bays, and finally drift-
nets for outside fishing in order to capture surface forms. It is not my
purpose to follow out the various descriptions of nets, traps, and appliances
that have been used for the capture of fish, but merely to briefly allude to
the principal modes of fishing as now carried on in the British Isles for
commercial purposes, and they may be classed under nets, fixed engines,
and hooks-and-lines.

* The abolition of night netting in rivers, a longer weekly close time, and the prohibition of all
fishing within 150 yards of fish passes, would be highly desirable for the above object,
f See " Catalogue of the Exhibits in the Indian Section." by Francis Day, page 6.

BEAM-TRAWL.

XCV11

The Beam -Trawl is in very considerable and still increasing use around
the British coasts for the purpose of obtaining ground-fish of prime
commercial importance, as turbot, soles, and brill, as well as for capturing
inferior sorts,' as gurnards, haddock, whiting, plaice, skates, and rays.
Sailing boats can be employed when a sufficiency o*f wind exists, for it is
necessary to go rather faster than the tide, but steam-trawlers have the
advantage of being independent of the necessity for wind in working their
vessels. The rapid advance in beam-trawling during the last fifty years
has been greatly assisted by the introduction of steam, ice, and railways,
thus not only enabling more of the finny tribes to be captured, but likewise

BKAM-TRAWIJNG.

XCvill MODES OP FISHING.

their being conveyed more rapidly to the shore, kept fresh for a long period,
as well as being readily distributed through a wide expanse of country.

We possess two classes of trawlers,* the beam-trawlers that fish the sea
either singly or more commonly in fleets (at least for the last 25 or 30
years) ; and the inshore-trawlers which are employed in bays and shallow
waters where they rarely work in companies.

The beam-trawlf is a purse-shaped net of a triangular shape, sometimes
as much as 100 feet long, along the upper edge of the mouth of which is
fastened a horizontal beam, from about 25 to 50 feet in length ; this beam
is kept off the ground 'by means of two iron heads, so. that merely the under
portion of the net and the ground rope touch the bottom of the sea when it
is being towed along by the trawler : it is usually employed over a muddy
or sandy bottom : but lately steam ones have used them over rough ground
along our south coast.

The under portion of the net which touches the ground is subject to
friction, and so much so, that various kinds of chafing-pieces have to be
added to prevent its giving way, while the amount of pressure inside the
net when being towed is so great as to cause a resistance sufficient to reduce
the speed of the trawlers from perhaps eight to one knot. The consequence
is that fish inside this bag-net become more or less bruised from violence.
We are told, by theorists that the trawl by pressure can do no injury to
young fish, but one would imagine that a net that requires a hide along
its under surface, and containing some ton or more of contents, must do
injury if scraped along over young and delicate flat-fishes as well as tear up
and destroy sea- weeds where the eggs of herrings and invertebrates are
deposited (page xcii).

Mr. Ansell asserts that when the "silver pits" in the North Sea were
first worked (1878-79), a trawler got a ton to a ton and a half of soles in one
night, of from 12 to 24 value. Now, although the wholesale price has
increased, the take has so diminished that trawlers have to seek fresh ground.
While Mr. Sim remarks that although in his opinion there are as many
soles caught now as fifty years since, they are about one-fiftieth part of their
weight. At Yarmouth beach you can see the men picking out small
immature fish soles half as long as a finger, and turbot, so to speak, not
larger than a thumb-nail. It was no use throwing them overboard, because,
after they once got into the net, they died.

Our inshore bays and banks at sea are the chief nurseries of our flat-
fishes, and of many other forms which are taken by trawls ; in fact most, if not

* I omit otter-trawls as they are not largely used by the fishing trade : also the complaints
of line and drift fishermen that much damage is done to their industry by beam-trawlers.

t The Scotch herring trawl is the English seine (see page c) : the American trawl is a long
line with baited hooks.

BEAM-TRAWL AND STOW-NET.

XC1X

all, forms of sea-fishes pass a portion of their infantine existence where the
waters are shallow. If. the bays and tidal harbours of our south coast are
searched in May and June, millions of these small fry may be found. Mr.
Ansell considers that although by trawling much harm has been done by
destroying young fry, greater damage has been effected by the small
boats which trawl for shrimps in our bays and estuaries. The mesh of the
nets of these trawls is so fine that nothing escapes, and thousands of bushels
of fry are annually slaughtered by these craft.

If, as we are assured is the case> fish, as the sole, has not augmented in
price more than other articles of consumption since the abolition of fishery
regulations, surely market returns would form a good basis on which to
argue. Her Majesty's Commissioners gave us the daily cost at Manchester
of soles during ten years ending 1865, restricting their figures to the month
of January, and showing the retail cost per pound. I have similarly treated
figures from Birmingham, and find if these periods are divided into five
years each, that prior to the abrogation of sea-fishery regulations soles
cost per lb. :

5 years ending 1860 lowest cost 3d, highest cost 8d, mean under 6d lb.
1865 6d, lOd, 8d lb.

Subsequent to the abrogation of sea-fishery regulations soles per lb.
at Birmingham cost :

5 years ending 1878 lowe'st cost 3jd, highest cost 18^d, mean under 13d lb.
1883 6K 30d \8d\h.

We are told that unless a close time for all fishes is imposed generally
no good will ensue. This is an erroneous statement : certain well-known

STOW-NET.

C MODES OF FISHING.

breeding banks or bays might be selected by local authorities and closed
during specified seasons from trawlers. Also it is very questionable if
trawling within the three-miles limit might not be prohibited with advantage.

The stow-net is' employed in various plaees, as the mouth of the Thames,
and is useful in taking sprats and whitebait (see vol. ii, p. 232). Moored in
a suitable locality at the commencement of a tide, the shoals are carried in
by the current, but as the tide slackens the net is lifted.

The lave-net as used in the Severn and contiguous pieces of tidal water
is very destructive to salmon. A line of boats is anchored across a'certain
spot, and a large lave-net resembling an enormous landing-net with a
triangular mouth and a long handle is let over the side of each boat with
its entrance towards the incoming tide. The bag of the net is of sufficient
length to be brought under the boat and is loosely held in this position
by the fisherman on the up river-side. On a salmon striking this lave-net
in his course, the bag end is at once let go, and the lave-net side facing the
incoming tide is elevated, the gunnel of the boat acting as a rest for the
handle to be worked like a lever.

Seine or sean nets,* also known as " sweep- or draught-nets/' or in
Scotland as " circle-nets " or " trawls/' are of varying length and meshes,
but their essential use is to enclose a space by either their two ends being
dragged on shore, or brought close together if fishing at sea. These nets
are formed of two "wings" or "sleeves," one On either side, while the
centre portion, known as the " bunt " or bag, is much the deepest part, and
consequently forms a bag into which the fish are received. The upper edge
or back of the net is kept in a perpendicular position by cork floats, while
the foot rope is weighted with leads.

The ground seine, "foot-seine," or " scringe-net " is employed where
the sea-bottom is smooth, and an eligible place exists where it can be
dragged on shore. Generally similar to the common seine, it has a pole
fixed perpendicularly at the outer end of each wing, and to this a long drag-
rope is attached by a short bridle. One rope being left on the beach, the
net is taken in a boat and passed out round the space it is intended to
encircle, and the second drag-rope being landed, the net is evenly hauled on
shore by the fishermen.

Common sein.es or stop -seines are such as are lifted at once with the
enclosed fishes into the boat, and should an inner or smaller boat not be
employed for the purpose of removing the enclosed fish, it is termed a tuck-
seine (vol. ii, page 227) ; while a modification of the seine is employed in the
United States, and has been so off Cornwall, in which the. materials used are

* For modes of sea-fishing see " The Sea Fisherman," by J. Wilcocks. and " Deep Sea
Fishing," by E..IIoldsworth.

SEINE-NETS.

CI

SEINE-NET BEING LANDED ON SHORE.

light, and there are no leads along the foot-rope, but instead there is as an
addition a draw-rope or purse-string along the whole length of the bottom
of the seine, for closing the net below the fish, and, in place of leads, the
small iron blocks through which the rope is rove answer the purpose of sinkers.
When the seine surrounds the fish, the bottom rope is at once tightened, so
as to prevent the fish from escaping downwards, which gives the seine
the appearance of a purse. In Cornwall a centre weight is used to slip
along the draw-string, which quickly and effectually closes it.

Peter-nets have floats along the upper rope and weights along the foot-
line, one end is attached on shore, and the other anchored out at sea on a
right line with the coast.

Drift-nets are mainly employed for the capture of gregarious fishes, or
such as swim in shoals, as the mackerel, herring, pilchard, and in some
places the sprat, while the Norwegians use them for taking cod. These
drift-nets are the only way in which some forms that are found far from
land can be netted. They may be likened to a wall of net suspended above
any depth of water in the ocean, and permitted to drift with the tide in any
direction, in the hope of meeting a shoal of fish. The size of the mesh must
be in accordance with that of the fish which it is desired to capture, for
the intention is to mesh the fish or permit them to push their heads and gill-

en

MODES OP PISHING.

covers into the net, but being too small for tne body -to go through, while
the gill-covers prevent their withdrawing themselves. These nets are
generally set at night, and are as a rule more successful in dark weather.
Drift-nets usually have no sinkers, but are worked on a single line, often
many hundred yards long, supported along their upper edge by corks or
floats, and sunk to the desired distance below the surface. A number
connected together are termed a train, drift, or fleet of nets; the most
important are those used for the herring (see vol. ii, page 221).

SHOOTING A HERRING NET.

Moored nets are employed in sheltered places for the capture of herrings
(vol. ii, page 215), as along the coast of Devonshire and in some Scotch
lochs. One form is termed a " bratt-net " and is used in the north for the
capture of turbot, hake, skate, &c.

The trammel is a set or fixed net which is said to derive its name from
the Latin " tres inaculps," or the French "trots mottles;" "three meshes,"
evidently thus named with reference to the three descriptions of meshes
of which it is composed (vol i, page 23). It is shot with the tide generally

WEIRS AND FIXED ENGINES.

cm

of an evening", and to prevent its captures being- injured by crabs or other
vermin it should be examined every three or four hours (vol. i, page 23).

Weirs* and fixed engines were in 1861 declared by the Legislature to be
a public nuisance, and abolished by law in England and Wales ; but so
many exemptions have been permitted, that it almost seems as if they were
again being introduced along our sea-coasts, or rendered more destructive
by the shortening of weekly close times at the mouths of some of our larger

KETTLE-NET.

rivers. But few things do more injury to fisheries, as they destroy fishes
of all sizes, and in many places irrespective of their condition. If the
interests of the fisheries and fish consumers alone were considered, not
only every fixed engine should be utterly done away with, leaving the
question of compensation to be settled by some competent court, but also
semi-fixed engines as lave-nets, and likewise the immoderate use of seines
should be jealously watched and regulated. Perhaps the most simple is
the kettle-net for mackerel, used along the south coast, or the stop -nets
and weirs of Swansea Bay ; but they, and the various fixed engines
employed in fresh waters, are so numerous and so diversified that space
will not permit even their enumeration in this place.

* The old Saxon word " weir," says Seebohm (" English Village Life "), meant anything used
for catching fish, whether fixed or movable. The word " putcher " indicated a weir made of puts.

f On the Thames the law enacted that no fish-weir was allowed to exist to the danger of the
broods of young swans,, but it might be dismantled at the discretion of their guardians.

CIV DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION.

Line -fishing * in the sea, as employed for the capture of commercial
fish; may be divided into two kinds, hand-lining and long-lining, while
angling does not call for any remarks. It may be observed that fish are
very insensible to pain (vol. i, p. 5).

DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION. .

The diseases and causes of the destruction of fish may be divided into
(1), those due to the condition of the water in which they reside; (2),
atmospheric disturbances and accidental causes ; (3) diseases by which they
are affected, including those of the ova and of infancy ; (4) misplaced energy
in fishermen and poachers; (5), injuries occasioned by the lower animals.

1. Waters may be virulently and directly poisonous, at once affecting
the life of the contained fish and even that of cattle or man ; or else they
may be rendered mechanically unfit for fish to live in, as when the
presence of mud chokes their gills and prevents respiration. Or the water
may be indirectly affected owing to some deleterious agency having destroyed
the living food which was previously present, or occasioned disease in the
resident fish. When a river in India becomes unduly full of mud the crabs
retire to the banks, and even the eels leave the stream for the wet grass in
the vicinity. This attempt to escape from water loaded with ingredients
inimical to life has likewise been observed among the invertebrate forms of
Europe, as was some years since pointed out by M. Gerardin, in France. A
series of experiments and investigations showed that colour, taste, odour, or
chemical composition cannot invariably be accepted as criteria of whether
water is wholesome or the reverse, but that such must be looked for in its
effect upon the animals and plants which reside in it. When fish died from
river pollution, it was observed that molluscs sometimes saved themselves
by hiding under leaves and waiting there until the danger had passed away;
thus, in July, 1869, Limnaaa remained five days out of the water.

Among, plants one of the most delicate was found to be the watercress,
and it was remarked that when some deleterious substance from a starch
factory obtained access to the Croult above the cress-beds of. Gonesse, all
these plants died within a few hours ; the pollution removed, the cress-beds
again flourished. Pond weeds and veronicas only live in water of good
quality; mints, rushes, and water-lilies, accommodate themselves to
mediocre water ; Carex is still less sensitive ; and lastly, the most robust of
aquatic plants is a species of reed, the Arundo phragmites, which resists the
most infected water. Among molluscs, the Physa fontinalis lives only in
very pure water, the Valvata piscinalis in that which is healthy, while others

* The reader is referred, for a full account of the various modes and manners, to the '* Sea
Fisherman," by J. Wilcocks.

WATERS AND ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES. CV

can reside in that which is of mediocre quality ; no mollusc will live in what
is thoroughly polluted. The phanerogamous plants thus sketch in distinct
traits, the characters of different streams ; but infusoria and cryptogams, and
particularly algas, may also enable one to judge in the matter .by the
modifications to which they are subject from alteration of the water. These
lower organisms survive after the disappearance of fish, of molluscs, and
of green herbs. As the alteration of the water progresses the river loses its
limpidity, it becomes opaline, and this gray colour resists filtration. The
surface is covered with froth, and the water deposits a dark, fetid slime,
whence bubbles of gas are liberated. Presently there appear sulphurets,
especially sulphuretted hydrogen, and the emanations of the river blacken
silver and cooking utensils that may be exposed to them. M. Gerardin
observed that when water contains the normal proportion of dissolved
oxygen it may support the life of fish and herbs. As the oxygen diminishes
the animals having active respiration disappear first, then those whose
respiration is lower. And he gives as. an example the black leech, which
will exist in water wherein the shrimp at once dies.

"Waters have been directly poisoned due to the refuse from a gas tank
having obtained access to the river ; by mine water, chloride of lime, caustic
potash, the refuse from manufactories, paper mills, .bleaching grounds,
tanneries, or sewers; artificial root manure, sheep dipping; beer unfit for
consumption having been emptied into fish ponds; the overflow of peat
bogs, and other destructive agencies. The more rapid the current the more
quickly are poisons entering the stream diluted, and the less chance of their
being immediately destructive to the fish. Fish themselves appear to dread
foul water, and some of our rivers which used to afford salmon, shad, &c, are
no longer frequented by them. The wash occasioned by steam launches in a
river may destroy or cast on the banks eggs or broods of young fish, as
may likewise a very high tide. Water which is sufficiently pure for some
species, as members of the carp family and notably the gudgeon, to reside in,
may not be sufficiently so for those of the salmon family. Widespread
destruction is occasionally observed in the sea owing to some cause inimical
to the lives of fish, and this has been attributed to deleterious agencies from
the shore, poisons carried down by rivers, the eruption of some noxious
volcanic gases from the sea-bottom or sulphuretted hydrogen generated from
animal or vegetable decomposition acting on the sulphates of soda and
magnesia contained in the sea-water.

2. Atmospheric disturbances and accidental causes may also be destruc-
tive : thus a frost or low temperature has been known to affect the sand
smelt, ballan wrasses, pilchards, conger, eels and other fishes ; but it is
remarkable how fish apparently frozen may occasionally be resuscitated.
Electric disturbances may be a cause of the death of fishes. Thus during

CV1 DISEASES AND CAUSES OP* DESTRUCTION.

1879 the occupants of a small fish-pond at Seek, in the Duchy of Nassau,
were destroyed by a flash of lightning. The following morning the whole of
the fish were discovered dead on the surface,, having all the appearance
of having been half-boiled, while they crumbled to pieces on being touched.
No injury could be seen, but the water in the pond was still muddy
and dull the morning after the storm. At 3 p.m. on July 7, 1865, a
flash of lightning, observed Mr. Lloyd, struck a house in Hamburg, and
about 200 feet away in a shady spot in the garden, and in the open
air, was a large fresh-water aquarium containing forty-three fish, consisting
of tench, carp, dace, roach, gold-fish, and eels, two species of loach, etc.
At the moment of the flash of lightning every one of these fish became
suspended perpendicularly downwards in the water, with their tails at the
surface, feebly and vainly trying to swim towards the bottom of the tank,
with all their fins strangely attenuated, as transparent as fine tissue-
paper, and densely covered on both sides with myriads of fine air-
bubbles ; their heads and bodies were not so covered. In less than half-
an-hour forty-one were dead, strongly curved, almost in the form of
semi-circles, and already fast decomposing ; but two gradually recovered by
being placed in running water.

Hail and thunderstorms united will sometimes depopulate rivers in
tropical countries (Dobrizhoffer) . On July 3, 1866, several salmon in
Scotland were killed by lightning during the intensely hot weather that
prevailed. Gales, likewise, are occasionally destructive to fish. Thus, on
April 13, 1874, one at Scilly was so violent that large fish, as conger,
hake, ling, &c, were tossed about in their watery homes, and at last flung
by hundreds on the rocks. Some had their scales knocked off, others their
heads stove in, while even those which live at the rocky bottoms fared no
better than their neighbours. It is well known that a high temperature
is injurious to fishes: thus about June 10, 1882, a great destruction of
trout occurred in Harry Loch, in Orkney. The weather reduced the water
in the Loch, and the trout gathered in great shoals around the burn-mouths,
where they were landed in hundred-weights by the neighbouring farmers,
who are mostly small proprietors. One fisherman-farmer landed a thousand
trout in one haul ; while on another occasion five cartloads were caught in a
single sweep.

Waterworks may suck in young fry by hundreds. The action of dynamite
is very destructive, and when blowing up the ruins of the Tay bridge, fish
as much as two miles away were destroyed: those killed. sunk, those only
stunned mostly floated.

3. Diseases by which they are directly affected, including those in the
ova state and infancy, as developmental or monstrosities, malformations or
consequent upon accidents. Space will not permit me to enter upon the

DISEASES AND CAUSES OP DESTRUCTION. Cvii

many affections from which fishes suffer, from the fungus of the young to
the numerous diseases of a contagious or non-contagious character.

There are certain animal parasites which affect fish, and which may be
briefly divided into such as are (a) internal or entozoa* and (b) external or
epizoa,) irrespective of which are infusoria and parasitic fungi.

Entozoa are very common, and it has been computed that each fish may
probably have, as an average, not less than' four distinct species of guests
able to occupy its body. Tapeworms would seem to be very numerous,
but most of their entozoa appear to undergo transformation after changing
their abode, the final host being often a water-bird.

Epizoa are seen as small crustaceans, many having the mouth modified
into a suctorial tube or beak, within which are lancet-shaped mandibles
employed for piercing. Of these epizoa we have two large subdivisions :
first, such as are essentially surface forms, as fish lice, which can move from
place to place by means of their hooked and prehensile antennas, or even leave
the fish and swim freely in the water ; secondly, the more sedentary forms,
as Lernea, having their heads frequently embedded in the bodies of their
victims, and without powers of locomotion. Often the whole of their external
organs are rudimentary, and they may be found in fishes' eyes, gills, mouth,
vent, nostrils, and fins.

Infusoria are everywhere, in fresh or saline water, and some forms are
endoparasitic in the alimentary canals of fishes, as well as other parts of
their bodies.

Parasitic fungi may also occur : thus one of a highly contagious character
has been of late years very destructive among fresh-water fishes. This
fungus, Saprolegnia ferax (see vol. ii, page 81), has probably been always
present, but requires a soil suitable for its germination and growth, and
although some of the following may be the predisposing cause to the disease,
still it has been observed where none such could have existed. The fish,
particularly salmon, may be rendered susceptible from many causes, as
debility, and especially after injuries occasioning abrasions, as male kelts
after the breeding season, and also unspent kelts, but young fish may
likewise be affected. Frosts, droughts, and polluted waters favour its
development, and possibly were there fewer kelts preserved, and the waters
of our rivers purer, we should find less of this disease, especially where the
currents are rapid. Overfeeding appears to predispose to it in some pieces
of water. The use of rock-salt is believed to be the best mode of
treatment in our fish-ponds and aquaria, while migrating to the sea would
seem to arrest the fungus, although it is not certain that it will not reappear
on the fishes' return to the river.

* See Cobbold on the Entozoa : he most correctly observes that cooking fish infested with
worms destroys their vitality, while these forms are not capable of existing in the human body.

CV111 ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH.

4. The effects of misplaced energy' in fishermen and poachers is a
subject too vast to do more than allude to in this place, but the especial
attention of legislators ought to be drawn to the fact that increased present
productiveness may be carried on at the expense of future years' supply, and
multiplying modes of destruction does not invariably tend to the benefit of
the fisherman or of the consumer.

5. Injuries occasioned by the lower animals are numerous, and differ
somewhat in the adult stage from what they do among the ova and young.
Adult fish suffer greatly from porpoises and their allies, otters, birds and
various species of their own kind ; whilst the ova and fry may be destroyed
by rats, birds (even robins), watersnakes, newts, frogs, leeches, and a variety
of other agencies.

ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH.

The cultivation of fish has for its chief object an increase in the number
or size, and likewise an improvement in the breed of those in fresh waters,
or even of the sea, not only by direct cultivation of the finny tribes, but also
of the food on which they subsist, and an eradication of what may be
detrimental to their prosperity. This would include whatever assists them
in their ascent or descent of rivers, when doing so to continue their
kind or maintain the life of each individual (see figure of fish-pass,
page lxxviii). When inland fisheries are impoverished the aid of
legislation has generally to be invoked, in order to protect what is left,
permit nature to play her part in their recovery, and, if necessary, to have
desirable forms artificially propagated.

Our inland waters consist of such as streams or rivers, broads, canals,
lakes, and ponds : while some rivers are rapid and clear, others are sluggish
and more or less muddy. Different classes of fish inhabit these various
localities ; those most esteemed and generally looked upon as game-species
are the Salmonidse, while the coarse fish consist of perch, pike, and members
of the carp family. As a general rule the first are found in running
water and lakes, whereas the latter prefer more sluggish streams, broads,
and ponds.

The artificial cultivation of salmon and trout has been found necessary
in these islands, for reasons already stated (page lxx), and a great gain
would have accrued were it not for the over-fishing which is now permitted
in the lower reaches of the rivers (page ciii). The ova of the Salmoriidas
can be obtained from fish captured in the waters they frequent, or their
redds in the rivers and streams may be plundered, or the parents may be
purposely kept in breeding-ponds.

ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF PISH. C1X

The mode of spawning- or stripping- fish, as salmon or trout, requires
practice, and the experienced fish-culturist will obtain a larger supply of
eggs from a ripe fish than will an inexperienced or careless manipulator.
Having obtained what appears to be a fish in a suitable condition, gentle
pressure along the abdomen must be exercised, when ova from the female or
milt from the male should be forthcoming ; occasionally the former sex will
require a little coaxing, as she will not. always yield at the first attempt.
If the eggs are not quite ready the distended abdomen feels hard and
somewhat unyielding ; whereas in ripe fish it is soft, and the ova can be
felt moving under pressure of the hand. It may be necessary to detain
these fish in suitable receptacles for a few days, either because the eggs or
milt are not quite ripe, or else consequent upon only fishes of one sex
having been taken.

The necessary apparatus for spawning fish consists of a shallow tin or
earthenware pan, for receiving the eggs and milt, and which is furnished
with a spout for the purpose of pouring them into the tin carrying-can, this
latter having a perforated lid; also a jug for clean water, and a dry cloth
is useful for assisting in holding the fish. The fish is held with its body
somewhat sideways, and its tail directed downwards, while the pan to
receive the eggs is placed below its vent, when by means of simple pressure,
commencing from the ventral fins and passing downwards along the belly
towards the vent, the eggs or milt are extruded.

There are two processes which may be adopted, the moist or water plan,
and the dry. In the first some water is first placed in the pan which
receives the eggs as pressed from the fish. In the dry process, on the
contrary, the eggs are directly received into a dry pan, over them the milt
is distributed, and the pan is gently agitated from side to side ; after giving
the eggs and milt time to mix, water is . poured in to the depth of a few
inches, stirred with the hand, and allowed to stand until they have hardened
and freed (see page lxvi), a period of from one quarter to three quarters of.
an hour, according to the temperature, taking longest in cold water. The
eggs must be properly cleansed by gently pouring clean water over them,
and when this is no longer discoloured, the eggs may be transferred from
the receiving to the carrying-can, which transference should not take place
too soon. Any milt left on the eggs will cause injury in the hatching
troughs, so should be thoroughly washed off. The most prolific milt seems
to be of medium consistence. The eggs are now removed to the incubation
house.* Irrespective of the foregoing, plans have been successfully adopted
in some fish establishments in the United States to permit breeding-fish to

* For directions as to hatchiug and rearing young fish, the carriage of eggs and young, and
the stocking of pieces of water, the reader is referred to the various existing works on fish-culture.

CX ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH.

ascend the stream which feeds the pond, but having wire trays so fitted
that the eggs when deposited drop through into a receptacle for their
collection. Some observers, however, appear to think that, due to the
rapidity of the current, the milt is often washed away before it has
performed its function, and consequently a number of ova escape
impregnation. Rough fish may likewise be artificially cultivated, as has
been remarked upou (page lxvii).

In stocking pieces of water with eggs or young of Salmonidas it would
seem desirable that great attention should be paid to the age and condition
of the parent fish, as I have observed (page lxix). I assume that care will
be taken that the water is appropriate, for although new stock may tend to
improve local breeds in suitable places, such will not be the case should the
food be insufficient or inappropriate. Perhaps the Lochleven race of trout
grows as fast as any other in these islands, especially when the eggs are
from seven or eight year old parents, while in the warmer south they increase
more rapidly in size than in the colder north.

The introduction of exotic forms of fish into our fresh waters has been
advocated, a proceeding which, although it may be beneficial, on the other
hand may be the reverse. It should first be considered whether the stranger
subsists upon a vegetable or animal diet, and secondly whether sufficient
exists for his consumption where it is proposed to acclimatize him.
Anadromous forms may be beneficial, due to the small amount of food they
generally require when ascending the rivers to breed. Carnivorous forms
may be useful, in order to diminish too large a number of coarse fish in a
river, where they are in excess of its capabilities for supplying them with
sufficient nourishment ; but when they have thinned down the primitive
stock they may continue to deplete the fishery to too great an extent, and
be a nuisance in their turn.

It is not surprising that the cultivation of fish-ponds for coarse fish has
decreased or almost disappeared from this country, because increased
facilities of carriage of fish from the sea-coast has rendered their produce
of but little value; and as such has become' less and less esteemed the care
bestowed on ponds has been diminished until at last they may be said to
produce fish of an earthy or muddy quality*. If left unattended to they
must deteriorate : they should not stand full more than two or three years
unless the proprietor revels in the contemplation of miserable half-starved
forms. The best treatment appears to be rotating crops of vegetables with
crops of fish, for which purpose at least three ponds are requisite, although
more are undoubtedly advantageous.

The aspect of the ponds, nature of the soil and character of the water
are all factors to be taken into account, hard clays and gravel being generally
unfavourable, and a marly soil mostly to be preferred. In constructing' a

FISH-PONDS. CXI

pond it should not be too deep, shallows being necessary for the fry which
rarely go into deep water, which being colder in the summer than the shallows
is less frequented by insects. Trees in their vicinity are detrimental, because
the leaves falling into the water occasion the formation of a black mud, and
the escape of foetid gases, which in winter, especially when the water is
covered with ice, become very injurious to the fish. Rank vegetation along
the banks is often injurious, although some weeds when present afford
shelter and assist in clearing the water.

There should always be facilities for running a fish-pond dry, and the
same depth of water should be maintained throughout the year. The inflow
of water should never be direct from a brook but conducted from one side,
and the sluices should be strong enough to render overflow impossible, while
there should be a grating to keep out strange fish. The centre of the pond
should be deeper than the rest, while near the outlet should be a spot still
deeper than any other part of the pond.

The number and sorts of fish suitable for stocking ponds depends on
many circumstances, especially as regards the food which is present, whether
the water comes from a stream or from springs, and many other conditions.
Boccius recommends the following as suitable for an acre of water : 200
brood carp, 20 brood tench, and 20 brood pike. North cautions the fish-
culturist against over-stocking and recommends that after the first year they
should be diminished because the food will decrease. When a pond is dried
the contained fish should be examined as to whether they are in good or bad
condition, from which it must be judged whether the water has been
under- or over-stocked.

In 1 754, Mr. Tull communicated a paper to the Royal Society respecting
how he had castrated certain carps, and asserting that their flavour had
become much improved consequent upon the operation.

Salt-water vivaria have been tried with varying success, and one would
imagine that with care and attention they might be made suitable for the
reception of some marine forms as bass, mullet, &c, so that a constant supply
to the market would be available even at the periods when gales hinder the
sea-fisherman's occupation. These vivaria may be placed on the coast and
either be entirely supplied with salt-water by means of tidal influence, or may
be lakes wherein the lower portion consists of salt or brackish water and the
upper of fresh, where it may be fed by a stream. The locality selected,
irrespective of all advantage of situation, should be where the necessary
food could be obtained at a cheap rate, whether such is the refuse of fish,
meat offal, shell-fish, or manufactured substances. Also, should the local
demand for fish be insufficient there ought to be the means of inexpensive
and easy carriage to a suitable market. Several such vivaria have been formed
at different places around these islands at various times ; Parnell mentions

Cxii ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF MARINE FISHES.

one near Queensferry ; Buckland one at Port Logan in Wigtonshire,
&c. Mr. Bland of Derriquin Castle, Kenrnare Bay, had in an inlet
of Sneem harbour, protected by reefs of rocks, a strong barrier of stones
formed across the entrance but through which every tide flowed and
ebbed, but leaving a sufficiency of water within. Here mullet, whiting, sea
bream, soles and plaice succeeded best, haddock also did well, but gurnards
became pale in colour. Whiting became so tame as to feed out of the hand,
and all assembled at the feeding-time on the appearance of the tray. While
marine fishes have been acclimatized to fresh water (page lxxxiii, and vol. i,
page 229, and vol. ii, page 123).

ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF MARINE FISHES.

I have already remarked how depeopled fresh-water fisheries have
been restocked by artificial means, and must now briefly record how in the
United States this procedure has also been turned to practical account with
salt-water fisheries. The Government Fishery Commissioners finding a
difficulty in regulating the modes of capture in the sea*, but observing that
the fisheries were becoming impoverished from over-fishing, conceived the
idea of propagating marine forms, as they considered that it would be useless
to expect fishermen to stock public waters at their own expense, especially
as everyone would subsequently be at liberty to catch the fish. Acting
upon this principle the United States Fishery Department have wisely
investigated their seas, repopulating their waters where the necessity exists,
and thus counteracting the waste which is being occasioned wherever man
has liberty or licence to capture the finny tribes however he pleases,
irrespective of season and regardless of their condition.

FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Class. PISCES.

Vertebrate animals which, as a rule, are exclusively adapted for an aquatic
life, and have their extremities modified into fins. Respiring, almost invariably,
solely by means of gills :* possessing a heart with only two cavities, and being
cold-blooded. They are scaleless, partially, or wholly scaled, the scales being
sometimes in the form of osseous plates.

Sub-class I. TELEOSTEI.

Skeleton osseous. Brain distinct. Skull possessing cranial bones. Vertebrae
completely separated, and the posterior extremity of the vertebral column
bony, or having bony plates. Branckia3 free, and the water discharged through
a single aperture, protected by a bony gill -cover, or opercle : branchiostegal
rays present. A non-contractile bulbus arteriosus, having a pair of valves at
its commencement. Optic nerves decussating. Intestines without any spiral valve.

Order I. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

A portion of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins unarticulated, forming spines.f
Air-bladder, when present, completely closed, not possessing a pneumatic duct.

Geographical distribution. The spiny-rayed or Acanthopterygian order of fishes
appear to be most numerous in the ocean, preying upon their weaker neighbours.
Whereas, if we examine inland fresh waters, we observe the Malacopterygii as
the Salmonidce and Gyprinidce usurping their place ; these latter having solely
articulated, but no spinous, rays.

First group Perciformes.

Body elevated or oblong not elevated. No superbranchial organ. Spinous
dorsal fin well developed : anal similar to soft dorsal ; ventrals thoracic, usually
1/4 or 1/5. Vent remote from caudal fin and posterior to the ventral.

Family, I PERCID^E.

Percoidei, pt., Scicenoidei, pt., et Mcenides, pt., Cuv. ; Percidce, pt., Theraponidce,
pt., Hcemidonidce, pt., Richardson ; Percidce, pt., et Pristipomatidce, pt., G-unther ;
Ambassoidei, pt., Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchisB present. Form of body
generally oblong. Muciferous system of head rudimentary or but slightly
developed. Eyes lateral. No superbranchial organ. Preopercle entire or
serrated : cheeks not cuirassed. Mouth in front of snout, having a lateral cleft,
occasionally on the lower side, moderately or rarely very protractile. Teeth
in the jaws villiform, with or without canines, present or absent on the

* Certain fishes, mostly residents within or near the tropics, as the Labyrinthici and Ophiocepha-
lidce, even when a bandage is fastened round their gill-covers, entirely precluding their
employment for respiratory purposes, are still able to live in water, provided they can obtain direct
access to atmospheric air. In the majority of fishes such a proceeding would be rapidly fatal.

f There are some genera in which the fins can hardly be said to have any true spines, as among
the Trachinidce, Aulostomatidcc, Ophiocephalidui, $c.

I

2 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

vomer and palatines. Anterior portion of the dorsal fin spinous: ventrals
thoracic 1/5 or sometimes 1/4. Scales ctenoid or cycloid. Lateral line when
present continuous (except in some species of Ambassis). Air-vessel usually
present and more or less simple. Pyloric appendages in varying numbers.

Genus I. Perca, Artedi.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oblong and someivhat
compressed. Preopercle serrated, with denticulations on its lower limb directed
forwards. Opercle spinate. Teeth villiform in jaws, on vomer and palatine bones:
tongue smooth. Two dorsal fins separated at their bases, the first with 13 or 14
spines : the anal with 2 spines. Scales rather small, ctenoid, not extended on to
the upper surface of the head. Pyloric appendages few.

Cuvier selected the Perch as an appropriate type for the first Genus into
which he subdivided the Percoides.

Geographical distribution. Fresh waters of both the Arctic regions, rarely
descending to salt water.

1. Perca flaviatilis, Plate I.

Uspicr], Aristotle, Hist. Anim. lib. vi, c. 14 ; vElian, xiv. c. 23, 26.
Perca, Pliny, xxxii, c. 9, 10; Ausonius, a.d. 400, v, 115; Jonston, De Pise.
1649, lib. iii, tit. iii, c. i, p. 156, t. xxiv, f. 3. Tine Perche de riviere, Belonius,
1553, p. 291. Perca major, Schonevelde, 1624, p. 55 ; Artedi, Genera Piscium, 1738,
Gen. 39, Syn. 66, species, 74. Perca fluviatilis major, Aldrovandus, 1638, v, cap. 53,
p. 622.

Perca fluviatilis, Rondeletius, 1554, ii, pp. 196, 197; Salviani, 1554, f. 2446,
226 ; Gesner, 1558, p. 698, f. 168&, and Edit. 1598, fol. 168 and 172, c. fig ;
Willughby, De Historia Piscium, 1686, iv, c. 14, p. 291, t. S, 13. f . 1 ; Ray,
Synopsis Methodica Avium et Piscium, 1713, Pise. p. 97, No. 23 ; Gronovius,
Zoophyl. 1763, p. 91, No. 301 and Mus. i, No. 36 ; Linnaeus, Syst. Naturae, Ed.
12, 1766, p. 481 ; Rutty, Natural History of the County of Dublin, 1772, i, p. 368;
Pennant, British Zoology (Edition 1), 1776, iii, p. 254, pi. xlviii, (Edition 2),
1812, iii, p. 345, pi. lix; 0. F. Miiller, Zoologies Danicae Prodomus, 1776, p. 46;
Linnaeus, Systema Naturae, Gmelin, 1788, p. 1306 ; Marsigli, iv, t. xxiii, f. 1 ; Bloch,
Fische Deutschlands, 1782-84, t. Hi ; Bonnaterre, Encyclopaedia Ichthyologia, 1788,
p. 126, pi. liii, f . 204 ; Lacepede, Histoire cles Poissons, 1798-1803, iv, p. 399 ;
Donovan, Natural History of British Fishes, 1802-8, iii, pi. Iii ; Shaw, General
Zoology, 1803, iv, p. 545, pi. lxxix ; Turton, British Fauna, 1807, p. 100 ; Jurine,
Poissons du Lac Leman, 1825, p. 1 ; Cuvier and Valenciennes, Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons, 1828, ii, p. 20, t. i-viii ; Flemrning, History of British Animals,
1828, p. 213; Nilsson, Ichthyologiae Scandinavicae, 1832, p. 81; Bonaparte,
Icones, Fauna Italica, 1832-41, iii, p. 79, f. 1 ; Fries och Ekstrom, Skandinaviens
Fiskar, 1836, pi. i ; Jenyns, Manual of British Vertebrate Animals, 1835, p. 330 ;
Yarrell, British Fishes (Ed. 1), 1836, i, p. 1, c. fig. (Eel. 2), 1841, i, p. 1 (Ed. 3),
ii, p. 112 ; Cuvier, Regne Animal, Poissons, pi. vi, f . 1 ; Templeton, Magazine of
Natural History (Series 2), 1837, i, p. 409; Parnell, Fishes of the Frith of Forth,
1838, p. 8 ; Swainson, Natural History of Fish, 1839, ii, p. 198 ; Demidoff',
Voyage dans la Russie Meridionale, 1840-42, iii, p. 355 ; White, Catalogue of
British Fish, 1851, p. 9 ; Thompson, Natural History of Ireland, 1856, iv, p. 61) ;
Gunther, Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, i, 1859, p. 58 ; Schlegel,
De Dieren van Nederland, 1862, p. 32, pi. 3, f . 2 ; Blanchard, Les Poissons des
eaux douces de la France, 1866, p. 130, fig. 8 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, 1875, p. 15 ;
Steindachrier, Ak. Wien, SB, lxxviii, Abth. i, 1878, p. 399 ; Houghton, British
Fresh-water Fishes, 1879, p. 1, pi. i.

Perca vulgaris and P. helvetica, Gronovius, Catalogue of Fish by Gray, 1854,
pp.113, 114.

Perca Italica, Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 45 (variety destitute of bands.)
Perch, Couch, History of the Fishes of the British Islands, 1862, i, p. 185, pi.
xx xiv.

FAMILY, I PERCIM}. 3

Synonymy of American examples.*

Bodianus jiavescens, Mitchill, Phil. Trans. New York, i, p. 421.

Perca Jiavescens, Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Cuv. and Val. ii,.p. 46; Agassiz, Lake
Superior, p. 291 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 59.

Perca granulata and P. serrato-granulata, Cuv. and Val. ii, pp. 47, 48, pi. ix.

Perca acuta and P. gracilis, Cuv. and Val. ii, pp. 49, 50 ; Giinther, Catal. i,
p. 60.

B. vii, D. 14-15 | t^, P. 14, V. 1/5, A. &, C. 18, L.l. 55-60, L. tr. 7-9/19 ;
Ccec. Pyl. 3, Vert. 21/20-21.

Length of head 3f to 4, of caudal fin 5f to 6|, height of body 3| to 4 in the
total length. Eye diameter 41 to 5| in the length of the head, according to the
size of the specimen, 1 to \\ diameters from the end of the snout, and also apart.
Interorbital space slightly convex. The maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of
the eye. Opercle with a rather strong and flattened spine, the lower edge of
which, also of sub- and inter-opercles and shoulder bones very finely serrated,
sometimes the serrations on the opercle are more or less blunted. A few
minute serrations sometimes present on the lower edge of preorbital. Preopercle
serrated along its posterior border, most strongly so at the angle, while several
denticulatious, pointing forward, exist along its lower edge. Teeth villiform in
the jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones, but absent from the tongue. Fins
dorsal spines rather strong, increasing in length to the third which slightly
exceeds half that of the head, they decrease in height from the fifth to the last :
second dorsal fin lower than the first. Pectoral two-fifths the length of the head,
but not so long as the ventral. Second anal spine slightly longer than the first and
rather above half the length of the rays. Caudal with rounded lobes. Scales
ctenoid, 15 or 16 rows between the lateral-line and base of the ventral fin : 75
rows descend from the back to the lateral-line. Gcecal appendages three : they
are rather wide and of moderate extent. The length of the intestinal tract
equals that of the entire fish excluding the tail or caudal fin. Air-bladder
destitute of any bones connecting it with the internal ear : it is large, simple,
having thin walls, while its superior half is closely adherent to the under surface
of the ribs and bodies of the vertebras ; inferiorly it is covered by the peritoneum.
Colours bright olive-green along the back becoming lighter beneath, where it is
often yellow or dark yellowish-white, occasionally tinged with pink. About 5
transverse black bands descend from the back down the sides, the first from just
in front of and below the two first dorsal spines : the second from the fourth to the
ninth : the third from the base of the last two and commencement of the soft
dorsal : the fourth below the middle of the soft dorsal : the fifth below its end,
while a sixth often exists at the base of the caudal fin. Sometimes these bands
arise from two roots, or are Y-shaped. First dorsal fin gray, with two black
spots, one anteriorly, the other over its last spines.

In the United States and Canada we find the Bodianus Jiavescens, Mitchill,
likewise termed Perca granulata and P. serrato- granulata, C. V. : also a variety
from Lake Ontario which is deficient in the spot on the dorsal fin, P. acuta,
Richardson : and an elongated form from Canada termed P. gracilis, C. V. These
fishes have been distinguished from P. jluviatilis for the following reasons :
locality : also, exclusive of colour, due to the head being slightly longer, the
snout more pointed, the skull smoother, and the preopercular denticulations
finer : the formula also being D. 13 | T 2 -g, A. f . The P. serrato-granulata, C.V. is
said to be thicker, skull and opercle more striated, the latter being denticulated
along the lower border, while the number of denticulations along the lower edge of
the preopercle are more numerous and finer than in the European species^ D.
14 | T 2 3-, A. yHg- : also the scales are somewhat smoother. P. granulata has the
vomerine teeth stronger than in the other forms, the denticulations on the
preopercle very fine especially along its lower edge : the surface of the parietal
covered with granulated and raised lines : opercle feebly striated and destitute of

* All the references to works treating on these fishes in foreign countries cannot he included,
due to the amount of space such would require.

4 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

denticnlations. Professor L. Agassiz having most kindly supplied me with
examples from the Cambridge, Mass. Museum, from which Professor Garman has
selected five of the form P. flavcscens with very great discrimination ; they
afford the following results, D. 13-14, | T |:f T , A. 2 y , L. 1. 55, 60, 65, 70 ; L. tr.
6-8/15-18. Length of the head 3y to 3|, height of body varies from 3 to 4 in the
total excluding the caudal fin. The radiating stria? on the summit of the head
are entirely absent in some but very distinct in others, and the same remark applies
to those on the opercle. In one the opercular spine is blunted, while the lower
edge of that bone is roughly crenulated : 1, 2, or 3, small spines are directed
backwards in three of these five examples ; in the last this edge is quite smooth.
Along the lower limb of the preopercle are from 6 to 11 forwardly directed
denticulations. Thus the radiating stria? on the head as well as the denticulations
are so subject to variety in the American forms that no specific value can be
attached to them. The height and strength of the dorsal spines and rays vary,
the weakest being the most elongated : while, as a rule, the more elongated the
form the more pointed, is the snout. Colour again is evidently of no specific
value, two of these five examples have no transverse bands : two have 8 bands,
and one has 7, irrespective of which they are either wide or narrow, well defined,
or else between them are numerous spots or blotches. The spot on the dorsal fin
likewise varies, and may be entirely absent. The form of the snout is 'similar to
that of P. fluviatilis, or else more pointed. Holbrook long since pointed out that
P. gracilis was a variety of P. flavescens, while Steindachner in 1878 remarked
upon its specific identity with the European perch.

Varieties. As to form, Linnaeus refers to a distorted perch having a hunched
back, found at Fahlun, in Sweden, where it is termed "Rudaborre:" Pennant
observes that similarly malformed ones exist in Llyn Rhaithlyn, in Merionethshire.
Pennell has likewise recorded similar fish in Cheshire, and they have been taken
in other localities. As to colour Cuvier has described examples in which the
dark transverse bands were absent : some have been observed almost white : and
others of a slatey-gray having a silvery tint. These variations in colour are
perhaps due to the soil in which the waters exist where these fish were bred, but
may remain even if transported elsewhere. One example, 18 inches long, and
weighing 4>\ lb., was captured in 1866 near Great Yarmouth, in Ormesby Broad,
with the transverse bands scarcely distinguishable, and the succeeding year
one of 2 lb. weight in Virginia Water, which was quite destitute of any bands.
(Zoologist).

The name of this fish is of Greek origin, signifying " dark colour," which
probably refers to its bands, while this nomenclature has been introduced with
but little change into almost every European country. It is the perca of the
Romans, the perch of the British Isles, perc, Welsh : the old Anglican, bears,
Dutch, baars, German, barsch, or the "banded fish," bors or pertsh. La perche,
French. The word perch formerly was spelt pearch. This fish possesses certain
local or provincial names, as barse in Westmoreland, or if young hurling : base,
Cumberland : trasling, Cheshire ; crutchet, Warwickshire. Likewise those of one
season are termed tranling, of two seasons egling, if of three stichlivg.

It has been very truly observed that in referring to the local names of plants
as given by old authors, one should not lose sight of the fact that strict exactitude
will not always be found, so it is also in fishes, for as in this day some persons
term all small fresh-water forms "minnows" or "gudgeons," and all minute
marine ones " sprats ;" so our ancestors were not more particular than many
authors belonging to the present generation, and who are neither fishermen
nor naturalists. Thus the same name became applied to quite different species of
fish while the same fish might have twenty distinct designations. The Saxons
have represented one of their gods standing on the back of a perch with naked
feet, as an emblem of patience in adversity and constancy under trial.

Habits. Perch as a rule are gregarious fresh-water forms, which inhabit
lakes, ponds, and rivers, more especially frequenting deep holes or where there is
a gentle current, preferring the sides to the more rapid parts of streams.
' >< vasionally they descend to salt water, and when found in such localities or

PERCIDiE. 5

where it is brackish, their flavour for the table has been considered improved. In
Norfolk they have been observed to associate with one another according to size,
the larger ones keeping in select societies by themselves, and the smaller ones in
similar companies.* Sluggish during the cold months, they become more active
in spring, when they frequent the more rapid parts of rivers and the shallower
waters. Mr. Manley, in his work on fishing, observes that he has found January
and February the best months for perch fishing. In confinement they become
very bold, and are easily tamed. In one of the tanks at the Westminster Aquarium
they might be seen lying on the leaves of the larger water plants, which are two
or three feet below the surface. They are very tenacious of life if the weather is
not very hot or thundery, and may be conveyed alive to long distances after
removal from the water, especially if surrounded by wet moss. In some parts of
the Continent, as Germany, these fish are taken alive to market, when, if unsold,
they are returned to stock ponds to await another opportunity. They are
injuriously affected by thunder, and also by frosts.

The strong spines of their dorsal fins render large ones very formidable as food
for pike, still the young constitute a tempting bait. Anglers who employ them,
as such usually first remove their back fin : while aquatic birds appear to relish
their flavour. When very hungry perch are said to make a meal of even the
spined-loach, Cobitis tcenia, but usually avoid such as food. Lacepede states that
they eat young water rats, and have been known to devour small snakes.

Means of capture. Being very fearless, the perch readily takes a bait,
and even a moderately skilful angler, using worms, coming across an
assemblage of small ones while feeding, is pretty sure of numerous captures,
as they gorge the hook. In some localities they are taken with night-lines,
spinning bait or even netted ; while they have been known to take the fly.
Anglers now find that due to constant fishing, perch in some localities are more
wary than was formerly the case, and the use of fine tackle is necessary while
any tendency to quickness in striking is to be avoided.

Baits. Worms, shrimps, small Crustacea, the larvae of insects and live-bait,
as young frogs, newts, and small fishes, whether gudgeon, roach, dace, chub, or
minnow : even an artificial fly has been found successful. Isaac Walton observes
" that should you rove for a perch with a minnow, then it is best to be alive, you
sticking your hook through his back fin : or a minnow with the hook in the upper
lip, and letting him swim up and down about mid- water, or a little lower, and
you still keeping him to about that depth by a cork, which ought not to be a
very little one : and the like way you are to fish for the pike with a small frog,
your hook being fastened through the skin of his leg, towards the upper part
of it : and lastly I will give you this advice that you give the perch time enough
when he bites, for there was scarce any angler that has given him too much."
Jesse remarks that these fish may be attracted to a given locality by placing
a number of live minnows in a glass bottle, from which their exit is prevented by
a piece of perforated zinc. When the astonished perch are looking in vain at the
tempting strangers, another minnow used as a bait is at once seized. Most anglers
are aware that should you happen to hook one of these fish and it is not
taken, your chances of obtaining more bites from members of that community
become diminished : often they instantly cease from patronizing the bait, as if
the one which had escaped capture had informed its fellows. But frequently
instances bearing the other way have been recorded " in removing the hook from
the jaws of a fish, one eye was accidentally displaced and remained adhering to it.
Knowing the reparative capabilities of piscine organization, I returned the
maimed perch, which was too small for the basket, to the lake, and being
somewhat scant of minnows threw the line in again with the eye attached to it as a
bait, there being no other of any description on the hook. The float disappeared
almost instantly : and on landing the new comer, it turned out to be the fish I
had the moment before thrown in, and which had actually been caught with
his own eye."f

* Fisherman's Magazine, i, p. 107. .

f Cholrnondelev Pennell, Angler's Naturalist, p. 51.

6 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Breeding. In some ponds perch increase in numbers very rapidly : spawning
commences about the third year of the fish's life, when they have attained about
inches in length. The breeding season is from March to the commencement
of May, occurring even earlier in shallow water, while it is frequently continued
until June. They have been known to breed in aquaria, and Bloch describes
how they deposited their ova in long strings, in a glass vessel in which they
were kept in his room. Near Paris the number of females to males has been
given as 5 to 1, but stich has not been generally recorded elsewhere. Mr. Manley
however, in his " Notes on Pishing," states that 9 out of every 10 which an angler
takes are females : in fact the proportion between the two sexes appears to
vary in different localities. A fish of 1| lb. weight was found to contain 280,000
ova, but Lacepede, on the authority of Picot, gives nearly 1,000,000, however the
size of the example is not stated. Buckland recorded 127,240 in one 2 lb. 11 oz.
in weight, and 155,620 in one 31b. 2oz. The size of the parent is one factor to
be considered in computing the number of ova which seem to increase with the
age of the fish : the weight of the eggs has been known to equal one-fourth
of that of the entire fish. The eggs are about tbe size of poppy seeds, glued
together by mucus, into stringy bands or mesh-work, having much resemblance
to frog- spawn. The female selects a spot where rushes, reeds, or grass grow in
the water, or else seeks a piece of wood or some hard substance, against which she
rubs herself or presses, until one end of the glutinous band of ova has become
attached : then gently swimming away the eggs become voided. These ova being
readily observed are constantly being devoured by aquatic birds and other
enemies. In the Thames swans destroy fish spawn to a great extent.

Their growth is slow, attaining to 2J inches in length at the end of the first
year, and about 5 inches at 2 years of age : but the rapidity of their growth
frequently depends upon local circumstances, especially as regards the purity or
otherwise of the water, the abundance or the reverse of suitable food, and whether
the locality is overstocked or not so. An example is recorded in which a perch
having lived five years in an aquarium only attained 8 inches in length and
then spawned.

Hermaphrodite examples have been recorded by Yarrell.*

Diseases. These fishes are occasionally subject to epidemics. Thus in 1867
a perch plague destroyed hundreds of thousands in the Lake of Geneva, caused
according to Dr. Forel and Dr. Du Plesis by the presence of certain minute fungi
in the blood. It has been stated in Yorkshire that " after a certain age they
become blind : a hard, thick, yellow fibre covers the whole surface of the eye, and
renders the sight totally obscured. When this is the case, the fish generally
are exceedingly black : and although from the more extreme toughness and
consistency of the membrane, it is evident that some have been much longer in
this state than others, yet there appears no difference either in their flavour or
condition. f Yarrell suggested that this opacity may be the effect of local inflam-
mation, produced by some of the numerous leech-like minute animals, which are
found to frequently occur in the aqueous humours of the eyes of fishes.

Uses. The Laplanders, according to Linnaeus, employed the skin of this fish as
a strong glue for the purpose of joining together the two pieces of different sorts of
wood of which their bows were made. These skins were first dried, then soaked
in a little cold water in order that the scales might be easily rubbed off : several
of these skins were then enclosed in a bladder or piece of birch bark so that they
might not become moist : they were then placed in a pot of water to boil, a stone
being placed over the vessel in order to keep in the heat. Small perch are
frequently employed as bait for pike and trout.

As food. This fish, especially when from rivers, has been held in great esteem
from the time of the Romans to the present day : in Ausonius's writings, when
recording delicacies for the table, he observes that the perch must not be omitted,
while among the fishes of the rivers, it is a worthy compeer to those of the sea,
and may even compete with the sea-mullet. Ray remarks that owing to its

* British Fishes (Ed. 1), 1845, i, p. 91.

f Thomas Huxley, Fish of Maltham Water, Craven, Yorkshire.

PERCID^E. 5

excellent flavour it was termed Perdu aquarum. It has white flesh, which is
firm in texture, delicate of taste, and easy of digestion. " In Ireland," says
Thompson, "it is in little esteem as food." The Dutch are said to be partial to
it when made into a dish termed " water souchey."

Those from various localities have had their praises recorded by different
authors : in England they are reputed to attain their largest size and highest
condition in Norfolk and Suffolk in the Yare and Waveney, where the water is
slightly brackish ; the improved flavour may be due to the presence of shrimps,
which ascend so high in the autumn months. On the Continent those of the
Moselle, the Danube, the Po, the Rhine, and the Swiss Lakes hold the highest
place. Their flavour is considered best when they are in roe.

Perch may be boiled or grilled with or without the removal of their scales,
while small ones are generally fried. On the Continent they are stewed in
vinegar, or fresh grape- or orange-juice, or some sour sauce. Another plan is to
spit them with their scales on, and baste with an acid juice while roasting; and
Mr. Manley mentions that the best he has ever had served to him were skinned
and broiled very delicately in buttered paper.

Habitat. Generally throughout the fresh waters of Europe, also in the
Siberian territories of Asiatic Russia. While in the Western Hemisphere it is
found on the North American continent from the fresh waters which find their
way into Hudson's Bay as far south as those which empty themselves into the
Gulf of Mexico. In Scandinavia it is present, according to Nilsson, as far as the
sixty-ninth parallel.

In Great Britain it is rare north of the Forth, unless it has been introduced
within the present century, now it is present in the Deveron, in Banffshire
(Edward), is common in the Forth and its tributaries, as well as in Scottish
waters to the south of this river. It does not appear to exist in the Orkneys and
Shetland Isles. It is almost universally distributed through England and Wales ;
but Borlase, in 1758, stated it to be unknown in Cornwall, where, however, Couch
remarks that it has been introduced this century. It is absent from the Isle of
Wight : while in Wales it is said to be chiefly confined to stagnant waters.

In Ireland it is pretty general though not universal. I have personally
captured it near Longford, while the lakes of Mayo abound with it. Some
naturalists believe it to be an introduced species, but Thompson observes that he
is disposed to doubt this as it is so widely distributed. Kanahan, remarking upon
the fishes of the River Dodder (1852), observes that there is good proof that it
has existed there twenty years.

As to the size it attains, one of 3 lb. weight is considered a prize by the
angler of the present day ; Pennant mentions one of 9 lb. as having been captured
in the Serpentine in Hyde Park, which a well known Norfolk angler (Land and
Water, 1879) does not hesitate to express his disbelief in, observing that the
largest he had personally captured was 5f lb., though he missed landing one that
he estimated weighed half a pound more. Mr. G. Browne* records one from
Bradgate Park, Leicestershire, which was found in a decomposed state on a
night-line, it then weighed 5j lb., and in adddition to its putrid state, which
doubtless reduced its weight, there was a large piece bitten out of its shoulder,
most likely by eels : he concluded that when alive it would have been at least
6 lb. Montagu mentions one of 8 lb. from the Avon, in Wiltshire, captured on a
night-line baited with a roach : and Hawkins, in the " Complete Angler," an
example twenty -nine inches in length. Hunt one of 6 lb. from the Birmingham
Canal : Donovan one of 5 lb. from the Bala Lake, while some of 4 lb. have been
taken from Richmond Park and elsewhere. They appear to attain to their finest
size in the largest pieces of water. The head, nearly 12 inches in length, of a
perch, was stated by Bloch and others to have been preserved in the church of
Luehlah, in Lapland, but which it has been surmised, with great probability,
originally belonged to an example of Sebastes Norwegicus, known as a "sea-
perch."

* Angler's Note Book, p. 29.

8 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II. Labrax, Cuvier.

B/icentrarclms, Gill : Poccus and Morone, Mitchell.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oblong or rather elongated.
Preopercle serrated : opercle spinate. Teeth villiform in both jaws, on the vomer,
palatine bones and the tongue. Two dorsal fins separated at their bases the first with
9 spines : the anal generally with 3 {occasionally with 1 or 2) spines. Scales ctenoid :
of a small or moderate size. Pyloric appendages few.

Geographical distribution. This marine and river genus of perches is found
on the shores of the Arctic regions extending in Europe to the Mediterranean
and Egypt : while it also exists along the coasts and rivers of North America.
Professor Peters has likewise described one species, Labrax Schoenleinii, from the
Celebes, proving that it may be present in the vicinity of the tropics.

The two European forms are distinguished by the teething on the vomer :
which in the Labrax lupus form a simple, almost crescentic, band : while the
spotted species, L. punctatus, has them in a triangular spot anteriorly, extending
backwards in a straight line like the shaft of an arrow.

Gill and others have subdivided this genus more especially in accordance with
the lingual dentition, the character of the serrations along the lower margin of
the preopercle and the spines on the opercle. The number of anal spines has been
observed to be inconstant.

1. Labrax lupus, Plate II.

Aa/3pa, Aristot. iv, c. 8, v, c. 9, 10.

Lupus, Plin. ix, cap. 17, 54, xxxii, cap. 2; Belonius, de Aquatilibus, 1553, i,
p. 113; Rondel. Pise. Mar. ix, c. 7, p. 268, c. fig; Salv. Aqu. 1554, xxviii, p. 108,
f . 30 ; Gesner, iv, p. 506 ; Aldrov. Pise, iv, cap. 2, p. 490, c. fig ; Jonston, 1649,
lib. ii, cap. 2, p. 103, t. xxiii, f. 3; Willughby, iv, cap. 1, p. 271, t. R. 1 ; Ray,
Pise. p. 83 and 132 ; Rutty, N. H. Co. Dublin, i, p. 367. Perca, Artedi, Gen.
Pise. No. 7, p. 41 ; Borlase, Natural History of Cornwall, 1755, p. 270, pi. xxvi, f. 19 ;
Basse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 257, pi. xlix (Ed. 2) iii, p. 348, pi. Ix.

Perca labrax, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 482 ; Gronov. Zooph. No. 300, p. 91 ; Bloch
Schn. p. 84 ; Bonnaterre, Ency. p. 127 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xliii ; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 100 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 299 and Hist. Nat. iii, p. 406 ; Flemming,
Brit. An. p. 213 ; Schagerstrom, R. Vet. Acad. Hand. 1829, St, i, p. 90, t. 3, f. 5-7 ;
Nilss. Scand. p. 82 ; Johnston, Fishes of Berwickshire, Mag. Nat. History, 1833,
Vol. vi, p. 15 ; Martens, Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 428 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 331 ;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 115.

Scimna labrax and S. diacantha, Bloch. iii, t. 301, 302 ; Shaw, Zool. iv,
pp. 534, 535.

Gentropomus lupus, Lacepede, iv, p. 267.

Perca diacantha, Lacepede, iv, p. 418; Bl. Schn. p. 85.

Perca elongata and P. sinuosa, Geoff. Desc. Egypte, Poiss. pi. xix, f. 1 and
xx, f. 3.

Labrax lupus, Cuv. Regne Anim. pi. vii, f . 1 ; Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 56, pi. xi ;
Tarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 6, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 8 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 118 ;
Bonaparte, Faun. Ital. p. 79, c. fig; Val. in Webb and Berthelot's Ichthyologie
des lies Canaries, 1836, p. 5 ; Parnell, Fishes of the Frith of Forth, 1838, p. 170 ;
Guichenot, Poissons dans l'Exploration Scientifique de lAlgeria, 1850, p. 31 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 10 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 64 (part) and Annals and
Magazine Nat. Hist. (3) 1863, xii, p. 175 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
p. 69 ; Steindachner, Ich. Spain and Port. Akad. Wien, 1867, p. 4 ; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 15.

Bass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 189, pi. xl.

B. vii, D. 8-9 | .j-J^, P. 16, V. 1/5, A. T5 ^ TTl C. 17, L. 1. 72, L. tr. 10/20,
Ccec. pyl. 5, Vert. 12/13.

Length of head 3f to 4, of caudal fin 5f , height of body 4j to 4f in the total
length. Eye diameter 4| to 5 (or even proportionately larger in very small

percim:. 9

examples), in the length of the head, 1^ to 1} diameters from the end of the snout,
and 1 apart. Posterior edge of the preopercle strongly serrated, the largest
toobh being at its rounded angle, and three more forwardly-directed along its
lower limb. Two opei'cular spines, the rest of the bones of the head unarmed.
Jaws of about the same length anteriorly : the maxilla reaches to beneath the first
third or middle of the orbit. Nostrils patent. Teeth villiform in the jaws, the
outer row in the upper somewhat larger than the rest : in an almost crescentic
spot on the vomer, in a band on the palatines, and also at the base of the tongue.
Fins occasionally the first spine in the anterior dorsal fin is absent, the first two
are short, the third 2/3 the length of the fourth, which is equal to the two
succeeding which are the highest, and slightly exceed the length of the rays of
the second dorsal. Third anal spine slightly longer than the second. Caudal
forked. Scales ctenoid. Lateral-line nearly straight, passing from the upper
edge of the opercle to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Intestines 5 short
ccecal appendages. Colours gray on the back, becoming silvery on the sides and
beneath. A dark spot at the upper half or two-thirds of the opercle, darkest
posteriorly. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins stained with gray externally : pectorals
and ventrals yellowish-white. The young have usually some fine dark spots
scattered over the body.

Names. This fish, the Labrax or "sea wolf" of the Greeks, and the Luptcs or
" wolf " of the Romans, probably received its names due to its voracity and
likewise to its cunning when hunting in shoals.

It is the Anglo-Saxon beers, now commonly known as bass or basse, which in
old works may be spelt bace : sea-dace of Kent : white salmon of Heme Bay.
Draenog and gannog, Welsh. Gapemouth, Scotland. White-mullet and king of
the mullets, Belfast. Le bars, or loup, French. Zeeharpel, or Zee-bars, Dutch.

Habits. A strong, active, and voracious fish, generally living in shoals ; and
although essentially marine, occasionally ascending rivers above tidal influence.
They mostly arrive from the deep sea about May, returning there in October or
November, and are very rarely seen throughout the winter months. They
consume almost every form of animal substance, preferring such when living,
they prey principally on small fishes and Crustacea, and have also been recorded
as eating sea- weeds. Couch states that they are very partial to Onisci, after which
they venture among rocks during tempests, when their prey become washed out
of their abodes : and it is during such stormy weather that they hunt along the
shore, even in shallow water, although at other times they take their station
under some sheltering rock, from which they dart out on passing prey. On
August 10th, 1878, Lord Ducie, when yachting off the south-west coast of
Ireland, observed that "the bass were hunting the sprats to the surface, the gulls
assisting. This went on all day along the strand up to the embouchure of the
Jung River." Bass prefer the vicinity of wooden piers to those constructed of
stone, evidently due to the greater abundance of food at the former to what
obtains in the latter locality. In Portsmouth Harbour, observes Mr. Barron,
in its various branches, large ones are frequently obtained, while numbers of
the young frequent Haslar Lake, where they appeared to feed on the Actiniae
which abound.

The Romans, aware of their habits, kept them in fresh-water aquaria, where
they are asserted to have bred : the same experiment has been tried by Mr. Arnold,
in Guernsey, with success, and their flavour was asserted by Dr. M'Culloch to be
much improved by the change.

Means of capture. The trawl : by deep sea lines or hand lining, also with
small seine nets. In Belfast Bay they are said to be most frequently captured
along with salmon, sea-trout, and mullets. At Mevagissey, in Cornwall, Mr. Dunn
informed me that they found it impossible to net them unless the seines could be
dragged on to a sandy beach : this however cannot be accomplished, owing to the
nature of the ground, so they must be hauled into boats : stones are therefore
thrown into the water, or other means employed to frighten the encircled fish, so
that they do not take the opportunity to escape under the foot-rope. But bass
are not to be thus alarmed, and as soon as the foot-rope is raised, so surely do

10 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

they swim away. These fish have even been credited with forming a depression
in the sand by the use of their tails where they esconce themselves while the net
passes over them. They take a bait freely at times, although occasionally nothing
will tempt them : while they are very dexterous in getting off fish-hooks, and
often manage to divide the lines. Anglers employ a long and strong rod, and,
with suitable lines, try their luck from pier heads and projecting rocks, while the
flood tide is much more likely to prove successful than the ebb : and the water
must not be so clear that the bottom is discernible. Gorlestone Pier and the
Britannia Pier at Yarmouth have been noted as suitable localities for angling for
these fishes.

Baits. The lug-worm or trolling with a sand-eel : while an artificial india-
rubber bait has been found very killing. Also a soft crab, slip of a cuttle-fish or
slice from a mackerel's tail. Neill found the fry of the sand-launce, and two
young father-lashers in the stomach of one, Thompson detected young whiting.

Breeding. Summer months, generally depositing their spawn near the mouths
of rivers. About the end of March a 12 lb. fish in the Belfast market contained
a vast mass of ova, smaller than the smallest clover seed (Thompson). Couch
considered July and August to be the most frequent months for breeding in
Cornwall, while on the Continent this fish has been said to deposit its ova twice in
the year. The young frequent harbours and the sandy mouths of large rivers,
but adults often lead a more solitary existence.

As food. Its flesh is white and good for the table when the fish is from 12 to
18 inches in length, and quite fresh, but on being kept even to a second day it is
said to often become oily and have a strong taste. However it is largely disposed
of in Cheltenham as a second-rate fish, while it has usually been two days or more
from the sea. The Romans considered this as among their prime forms for the
table, holding those from the Tiber as superior to all others, while the small-sized
spotted ones were preferred : the very best being captured between the two
bridges of the city, a locality into which the main drains discharged their contents.
The Greeks likewise esteemed this fish as highly as did the Romans.

Habitat. A native of temperate Europe, extending from Norway and the
British coasts to the Mediterranean : " it is very abundant," observes Steindachner,
" along the north and west shores of the Iberian peninsula, especially where
rivers debouch into the sea, but is rare on the eastern side of Spain."

In Britain it is most common in the summer months, along the southern
coast, while towards the north it decreases in numbers. In Scotland it is rare to
the north of the Frith of Forth : Edward records a single example found dead
in the River Deveron, in Banffshire, in 1839 : while it has not been recorded from
the Orkneys and Shetland Isles.

In Ireland it was first noticed by Dr. Brown ; it is well known but not
numerous along its southern shores, but decreases in numbers towards the north,
where it becomes rare : an example has been recorded from Portrash, in the
county of Antrim.

A 101b. fish is considered a fine example, but Pennant records one of 151b.
One 22 lb. has been netted close to Heme Bay Pier, and Yarrell alludes to one
of 281b.

PERCID^E. 11

Genus III. Acerina, Cuvier.

Gymnocephalus, Bl. Schn. : Cemua, Flemming.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Opercle and preopercle spinate.
Distinct muciferous channels on the liead. Teeth in jaws villiform : absent from the
palatine bones and tongue. A single dorsal fin with many spines (13 to 19) : anal
with two. Scales ctenoid, and of moderate size, none on the head. Pyloric appen-
dages few. Air-bladder simple.

Geographical distribution. The fishes of this genus are found in the rivers of
the Palasarctic region, extending from Siberia and Russia as far south as Northern
Italy. It has been remarked that their distribution is limited to rivers or waters
which have their outlet in the Arctic Ocean or into European seas, similarly to
the distribution of Perca fluviatilis. Irrespective of the Acerina cemua there are
two other European species, the long-snouted A. Schrcztzer, with distinctly
longitudinal bands, and a variety, A. rossica, in which these bands are indistinct
or even absent, this fish is found in rivers flowing to the Black Sea : also the
A. czelcanowshii from the River Angera.

1. Acerina vulgaris, Plate III.

Cemua fluviatilis, Belon. Aqu. p. 291 ; Gesner, pp. 191, 192, 226 ;
Willughby, p. 334 t. X 14, f. 2 ; Ray, p. 144. Perca fluviatilis minor, Gesner,
pp. 29, 701, 825 f. 160 a and 161; Schonev. p. 56 ; Aldrov. v, c. 34; Jonston, De
Pise. lib. iii. t. 3, c. 2, t. xxviii ; Ray, p. 144, Perca, Artedi, No. 3,
Spec. p. 80 and No. 4, Genera, p. 40 ; Klein, Hist. Pise. No. 1, v, p. 40 ;
Duhamel, Peches iv, p. 39, t. viii, f. 1 ; Marsigli, iv, p. 67, t. xxiii, f. 2. Buffe,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 259, (Ed. 2) iii, p. 350.

Perca cemua, Linn. Sys. i, p. 487 ; Gronov. Zooph. p. 86, No. 288 ; Schceffer,
Pise. Bavar. Ratis. Pentas ; Bloch, t. liii, f. 2 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1320 ; Donovan,
Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xxxix ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 548, pi. 79 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna,
p. 100; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Zool. p. 334; Miiller, Zool. Dan. Prod. p. 392;
Gronov. ed. Gray. p. 112.

Gymnocephalus cemua, Bl. Schn. p. 345 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 12.

Perca acerina, Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 134, pi. liii, f. 205.

Holocentrus post, Lacep. iv, p. 357.

Cemua fluviatilis, Flemm. Brit. An. p. 212.

Acerina vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. iii, p. 4, pi. xli, vii, p. 448 ; Fries och Ekstrom,
Skand. Fish. p. 9, t. i, f . 2 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 18 c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 17, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 122 ; Cuv. Reg. Anim. 111. Poiss, pi. ix. f. 2. ; Nordm. in
Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 368 ; Gunther Catal. i, p. 72 ; Houghton, Brit.
F. W. Fishes, p. 5, c. fig.

Acerina cemua, Gunther, Wiegm. Archiv. 1855, p. 199, pi. x, f. 1, 2 ; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 16.

Buff, Couch, Fishes of the British Isles, i, p. 193, pi. xli.

B. vii, D ^Jhr, P. 13-14, V. 1/5, A. T %, C. 18, L. 1. 40, L. t. 6/14. Ccec. pyl.
3, Vert. 15/20-22.

Length of head 3f to 3, of caudal fin 5J to 6|, height of body 3| to 3f in
the total length. Eye diameter 3% to 4 in the length of the head, 1 to If
diameters from the end of the snout, and f of a diameter apart. Body compressed,
a concavity on the dorsal profile above the eye and occiput causing the snout to
appear swollen. Upper jaw slightly the longer : the posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. Opercle with a well

12 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

developed spine : the posterior edge of the preopercle with 3 or 4 sharp teeth, the
lowest wbich is at the angle and turned downwards and forwards, occasionally the
superior ones are double : lower edge of opercle with two forwardly directed
spines. Lower edge of preorbital festooned. The openings of large pores,
situated in depressions, extend in 2 rows along either side of the head, the
superior being below the lower edge of the sub-orbital ring, and the inferior
passing along the lower jaw and round the opercular margin. Anterior nostril
the smaller and provided with a valve, the posterior oval and patent. Shoulder
scale and one at angle of pectoral fin spinate. Teeth in numerous villiform
rows in jaws, none on vomer, palatines, or tongue. Fins dorsal spines rather
strong, the third and fourth the highest and equalling the length of the head
behind the middle or even front edge of the eye, they decrease perceptibly in
length from the 7th or 8th, while the last is slightly higher than the preceding
one : rays lower than the spines. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the
snout. Ventral does not reach the anal. First anal spine equals half the length of
the head, and is usually slightly longer and stronger than the second, caudal
emarginate. Scales ctenoid, none on the head or fins : about 15 rows between
the lateral-line and base of the ventral fin : 62 to 64 rows passing from the back
to the lateral- line. Tubes along the lateral-line double. Intestines with a fold :
its length from the pylorus to the vent equals that of the entire fish excluding the
caudal fin. Colours grayish, or olive-brown, spotted with black or brown,
becoming lighter on the sides and almost white on the abdomen. Dorsal, caudal,
pectoral, and anal fins with spots which may coalesce on the pectoral fins so as to
form bands. Ventral, reddish-yellow.

Varieties. Examples of a rather elongated form obtained from Russia exist in
the Leyden Museum.

Names. Buffe, ruff, or Jack-ruffe are terms probably derived from the rough-
ness of the edges of the scales : pope is said to be a term of contempt, a contemp-
tuous phrase still in use in Dorsetshire being " what a pope of a thing." A cruel
custom obtains near Windsor on the Thames, of pressing a cork tightly down
on to the spines of the dorsal fin, and siibsequently the fish is returned to the
river. This is termed " plugging a pope," the origin of which is unknown.
Tommy-bars is likewise a provincial term for this fish. Y garwberc, Welsh. Pos,
Dutch. La gremille commune, French.

Habits. A gregarious fresh-water fish, living in large companies, and keeping
to the tolerably deep water, where it prefers cold and shady places to warm
situations : thriving best in ponds through which a stream flows, canals, and
sometimes selecting those portions that are rocky or strewed with stones and sand.
It is lively in its movements and feeds on food similar to that which has been
ascribed to the common perch. In confinement it becomes rapidly tame. Mr.
Arderon (Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 1747) tells us how he kept two in an aquarium
where they became much attached to one another. He gave one away, when the
other became so miserable that it declined all food, and this continued for nearly
three weeks. Fearing his remaining fish might die, he sent for its former
companion, and on the two meeting they again became quite contented.

Means of capture. Similar to such as are employed for the perch. They
are often taken by young anglers fishing for gudgeons and sticklebacks.

Baits. Identical with those used for the perch or gudgeons, especially a red
woi'm, while it is an equally fearless biter and a bottom feeder.

Breeding. In the months of March or April its straw-coloured ova are
deposited among the roots and stems of flags and rushes at the sides of streams.
In the example figured, which weighed 4| oz. I found 205,000 well-developed
ova, while more were present in a less advanced stage.

Uses. This fish is frequently employed as a bait when trolling for pike or
trout.

As food. Its flesh is esteemed, especially during the spring and autumn, but
is scarcely equal to that of the perch.

Habitat. Fresh waters of Siberia and Russia, while it is common in the
northern and central parts of Scandinavia, but rare in the southern districts. It

PERCID^E. 13

is found in Switzerland, Germany, France, and England, but said to be absent
from Spain, Portugal, Italy aud Greece.

Tn the British Isles it is common in the Severn, Cam, Thames, and the rivers
and canals of the midland counties of England, especially where the bottom is of
fine sand or gravel. It is not found in Devonshire, Cornwall, or the Isle of
Wight. It is generally considered to be absent from Scotland, but Edward in
1877 observed " one is said to have been obtained off Troup Head, about forty-
two years ago." It is absent from Ireland.

This fish was first noticed by Belonius who named and figured it : next
Dr. John Caius took it in the River Yare near Norwich and sent a drawing to
Gesner, termed Aspredo, "rough," which was published.

It rarely exceeds 7 inches in length. I am indebted for the example figured,
natural size, to Professor Smidt of Archangel.

14 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV. Serranus, Cuvier.

Epinephelus, sp. Bloch : Cephalopholis, sp. Bl. Schn. : Paraserramis and
Serranichthys, Bleeker : Labroperca, Mycteroperca, Bodianus, Enneacentrus, Petro-
metopon, Promicrops, Schistoras, and Menephorus, Gill : Prospinus, Poey : Priacan-
thichthys {young), Day: Paralabrax, Paranthias, and Itaiara, Vaillant and
Bocourt.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiai present. Eyes lateral, of moderate size.

Preopercle with its vertical limb more or less serrated, its horizontal one generally

entire : opercle with two or three flat spines. Teeth villiform in the jaws, vomer and
palate: canines usually present : tongue smooth. Dorsal fin single, having from 8 to

12 spines : anal with 3 : caudal cut square or obliquely, emarginate or rounded.

Scales small, ctenoid or cycloid. Pyloric appendages many, in moderate numbers, or
few.

These fishes, as might be expected in a genus which is so widely distributed,
show many individual differences. The colour varies extensively and cannot even
be accepted as a trustworthy guide for dividing Serrani into groups. The form of
the preopercle is not invariably identical in every specimen of a species, or even
on the opposite sides of the head in the same fish : while a spine is occasionally
present at its angle in the immature, becoming more or less absorbed in the adult.
The sub- and inter-opercles may be serrated or smooth in the same species, as is
well exemplified in the Indian Serranus bcenack. The fins also alter with age,
owing to the spines not increasing in length so rapidly as the rays, consequently
they may be comparatively shorter in the adult than in the young. Even the soft
rays in the mature fish are of less proportionate height to the entire length of the
specimen than they are in the immature. The same thing occurs in respect to the
anal spines, the second being sometimes the longest in the immature, but shorter
than the third in the mature : this appears usually due to the second spine
augmenting in thickness while the third is increasing in length. Occasionally
there is an excess of one spine and a deficiency of one soft ray in the dorsal fin,
the first of the latter having taken on a spinous character, a phase which is seen
more commonly in some of the Sparidce. The number of the rows of scales is
very important among these fishes, as so ably pointed out by the late Dr. Bleeker,
who invariably counted the number of transverse rows going to the lateral-line
from above and below. Hybrids have been recorded.

Geographical distribution. Seas of temperate and tropical regions, sometimes
ascending rivers for predaceous purposes. In the British Isles two species have
been recorded, one a resident, the other an occasional or accidental visitor.

1. Serranus cabrilla, Plate IV.

Xai'j], Salviani.

Perca, Rondel, vi, c. 8, p. 182, c. fig. ; Gesner, Ed. 1598, f. 16, c. fig. Perca
marina, var. B. Brunnich ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, t. ii, c. i, art. viii, p. 47, t. xiv,
f. 10, 11, 12 ; Ray, p. 140.

Perca cabrilla, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 488 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1322 ; Jenyns, Man.
Brit. Vert. p. 352.

Holocentrus virescens, Bloch, t. ccxxxiii ; Bl. Schn. p. 313 ; Lacep. iv, p. 357.
marinus, Lacep. iv, p. 376.

Lutjanus serranus, Lacep. iv, p. 205.

Serranus marinus, &ndflavus, Risso. Ich. Nice, pp. 291, 293.
cabrilla, Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 223, pi. xxix ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. I)
i, p. 9, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 11 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 129; Swainson, Pishes ii, p. 201 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Pish. p. 11 ; Nordman, in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii,
p. 367 ; Guichen. Expl. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 33, pi. 1 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 106 ;
Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 9.

Perca channus, Couch, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist, v, p. 19, f. 6.

Serranus novemcinctus, Kner, Novara Fishes, p. 17, t. ii, f. 1.

Comber, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 195, pi. xlii.

PERCIM3. 15

B. vii, D. {J, P. 15, V. 1/5, A. T 2 , C. 15, L. I. 80-90, L. tr. 9/25.

Length of head 3 to 3j, of caudal fin 6 to 7, height of body 3^ in the total
length. Eye diameter 4^ in the length of the head, 1| diameters from the end
of the snout, and 1 diameter apart. Posterior border of the preopercle serrated,
most coarsely so at its rounded angle. Nostrils patent, the posterior the larger.
Lower jaw the longer : the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath
the hind edge of the eye. Teeth of moderate size, the outer row enlarged :
villiform ones present on vomer and palatines. Fins dorsal spines lower than
the rays, increasing in length to the fifth, which equals 2^ in the height of the
body below it. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the snout. Caudal slightly
emarginate. Scales ctenoid, 10 rows between the lateral-line and the commence-
ment of the soft dorsal fin. Golotors orange-yellow, lightest about the head, 4 or
5 stone-gray longitudinal narrow bands commence below the eye, two of which
become lost on the head ; while three going backwards become of a gray-blue
colour, the middle one passing above the pectoral fin, reaches the middle of
the side of the base of the tail, to which the two others likewise extend.
Fins yellowish, the dorsal with numerous blue spots, which however become
smaller posteriorly, and have a narrow black edge : similar spots on the caudal
fin : while there are some larger but less distinct ones on the anal. Frequently
transverse bands descend from the back ; these may be unnaturally dark, which
would give the appearance figured in Serranus novemcinctus, Kner. Some
confusion has occurred respecting this species, due to Linnaeus having described
the Sebastes Norivegicus, under the head of this fish : while Bonnaterre, pi. 54,
f. 210, reproduced Pennant's figure of the Bergylt as that of Ferca marina,
p. 128, probably a slip of the pen, it being evidently intended for the succeeding
Ferca Norvegica, the very reference to this figure under Ferca marina being to
pi. 56 whereas it is on pi. 54.

Names and their origin. It is sometimes termed " The gaper," because when
in its death agony it erects its fins and opens its mouth, and thus stiffens, as is
commonly seen in many of the spiny-rayed or acanthopterygian fishes. Bulls,
Mevagissey in Cornwall. Smooth serranus.

Habits. Mr. Dunn observed in Cornwall that this fish is "plentiful in deep
rocky gullies, and the very rough ground off our coast. It is most common in
summer. Its food appears to be small fishes and crustaceous Ophiuraa (slender
snake star-fishes) and encrusting corallines (Lepraliaa)."

Means of capture. Frequently taken in wicker crab-pots, which it probably
enters to eat the baits.

Breeding. End of the summer or in the autumn months of August and
September.

Hermaphrodites. Cavolini and Cuvier have, after repeated examinations,
described this fish as a true hermaphrodite, one portion of each lobe of roe being
stated to consist of true ova, the other part having all the appearance of perfect
milt, and both advancing simultaneously to maturity. Yarrell, however, having
obtained some roe, examined it in conjunction with Professor Owen, and they
observed nothing equivocal either in its structure or appearance.

Uses. Albertus Magnus advises that its tongue and a small portion of its heart
should be removed and then infused in water, and assures us that the mixture will
cause a multitude of fishes to collect together. Likewise should you have a law
suit, it should be placed under your arm and the judge will become your friend.

As food. Seldom even brought to market, but usually cut up into baits.
Still it is good eating, and said to be delicate, but too small to be of much value.

Habitat. From the south and south-west coasts of England, also of
France and Portugal and throughout to the Mediterranean. It has likewise been
taken at Madeira, Teneriffe, as far south as the Cape of Grood Hope, and the
Island of St. Paul in the Southern Indian Ocean.

Although this fish is common at Plymouth, also at Mevagissey, in Cornwall,
and was first observed by Couch at the intermediate locality of Polperro, it
becomes rare at Penzance. Mr. Cornish observed in 1866, having obtained
a specimen there, that it was only the second he ever saw from Mount's Bay

10 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

(Zoologist 1866, p. 348). It does not appear to extend to the Straits of Dover on
the east, nor so high as the Bristol Channel on the west. It has not been recorded
from Ireland.

It attains to at least a foot in length. The example figured, which is 10 inches
long, was obtained at Mevagissey by Mr. Dunn.

2. Serranus gigas, Plate V.

Perca gigas, Briinnich. Pise. Mass. p. 65, No. 81 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1315.

Holocentrus gigas, Bl. Schn. p. 322 ; Rafin. Indice, p. 17 ; De la Roche, Ann.
Mus. xiii, p. 318.

Holocentrus merovo, Lacep. iv, p. 377 ; Risso. Ich. Nice, p. 289.

Serranus gigas, Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 270, pi. xxxiii ; Tarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 15, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 14 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 132 ; Exp. Scient. Moree, Zool.
Geoff. St. Hilaire, &c. 1832, pi. xvi, f. 1 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 333 ; Guichen.
Explor. Sc. Alger, 1850, Poiss. p. 35; White, Catal. of Brit. Fish. p. 11;
Giinther, Catal. i, p. 132; Steind. Ich. Span. & Port. 1867, p. 11, and SB. Ak.
Wien, lxxiv, p. 175.

Perca robusta, Conch, Mag. Nat. Hist, v, p. 21, f. 7.

Serranus marginatus, Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 142.

Serranus fimbriatus, Lowe, Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 1836, p. 195, pi. 1 ; Val.
in Webb and Berth. Ich. p. 8.

Serranus caninus, Val. 1. c. p. 10.

Serranus cernioides, Brito Capello, Journ. d. sc. Math. &c. No. ii, p. 156 and
No. iii, p. 12, Est. iv, f. 1.

Pushy Perch, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 198, pi. xliii.

B. vii, D. T^Vg-, P- 16-17, V. 1/5, A. ^, C. 17, Ccec. pyl. 12 (19 to 20 C. V.)
L. 1. 120-130.

Length of head 3j to 3|, of caudal fin 6%, height of body 3| to 4 in the total
length. Eye diameter 6 to 7 in the length of the head, 1^ to 1| diameter from
the end of the snout, and 1 to 1| apart. Lower jaw the longer. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the hind edge of the eye. Preopercle serrated, most coarsely
so at its angle. Sub- and inter-opercles entire. Teeth villiform in jaws, on vomer
and palatines. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength increasing in length
to the third, which equals nearly 1/2 the length of the head. Soft portions
of dorsal and caudal rounded. Scales ctenoid, about 12 rows between the base
of the first dorsal ray and the lateral-line. Coders reddish-brown on the back
becoming lighter on the sides and beneath : two oblique lines on the gill-covers
passing backwards and downwards.

Modes of capture.- Takes a bait : Couch's example, which was 3 feet long and
weighed 19 lb., was thus obtained.

Preeding. In warmer climates it deposits its ova in shallow water during the
months of April and May.

As food. It is held in some estimation in the countries to which it resorts.

Habitat. This fish, of which occasional wanderers have been captured along
the south coast of England, is found in the Mediterranean, also Madeira and as
far south as the Cape of Good Hope, as well as on the eastern shores of North
America, being plentiful and of large size at Rio de Janiero. Risso observes that
it only visits Nice during the summer and autumn.

In the British Isles its captures have been almost confined to the south coast.
It was first observed by Couch, one example having been taken at Polperro : two
are recorded by Cock from Falmouth, one of which was sent to the British
Museum : while Mr. R. Couch (Zool. 1846, p. 1401) remarked that the late
Mr. E. Chirgwin informed him that two specimens had been caught in Mount's
Bay, and observes that one if not more have been obtained at Penzance.

This fish attains to a large size, as up to 3 feet in length, and 60 lb. in weight,
while a figure drawn natural size of the head of one captured at Penzance still
exists, it is 16 inches long, which would make the example at least 52 inches in
its entire length. I have to thank Professor Peters, Director of the Zoological
Museum at Berlin, for the example which is figured.

percim:. 17

Genus V. Polyprion, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oblong. Opercles denti-
culated, a serrated longitudinal ridge across the opercle, and others on the upper
surface of the head and occiput. Teeth villiform in the jaws and on the vomer,
palatine bones and tongue. A single dorsal fin with 11 strong spines, anal with 3.
Scales ctenoid, small. Pyloric appendages numerous.

In appearance these fishes have a general resemblance to Serrani with the
head like a Scorpama.

Geographical distribution. From the coasts of Norway to Britain, France and
the Mediterranean : also Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope, while a large dried
example was brought to Europe by the " Novara" from the Island of St. Paul in the
Southern Indian Ocean. Forster recorded it from Queen Charlotte's Island, on
the western shores of North America ; and a few years since Steindachner described
a new species, as Polyprion Knerii, from the island of Juan Fernandez, on the
western coast of South America.

1. Polyprion cernium, Plate VI.

Amphibrion Americanus, Bl. Schn. p. 205, and A. Australe, t. xlvii.

Plpinephelus oxygeneios, Bl. Schn. p. 301.

Scorpama Massiliensis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 184 (not Lacep.).

Holocentrus gulo, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 367.

Scimna aquila, Rosenthal, Ich. Taf. xvi, f. 1.

Polyprion cernium, Val. Mem. du Mus. xi, p. 265, pi. xvii ; Cuv. and Val. iii,
p. 21, pi. xlii and viii, p. 475 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Ed. 2) i, p. 19, c. fig. (Ed. 3)
ii, p. 124 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 203 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. ix, f. 1 ;
White, Catal. p. 12 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 169 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 16 ;
Kner, Voy. No vara Fische, p. 28 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 15 ;
Sauvage, Arch, de Zool. 1879-80, p. 12.

Serranus Gouchii, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 12, c. fig ; Jenyns, Man.
Brit. Vert. p. 334.

Perca scriba, Comide, Peces de Galicia, p. 57.

Stone-basse, Couch, Linn. Trans, xiv, p. 81, and Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 200,
pi. xliv.

B. vii, D. ^J^, P. 16-17, V. 1/5, A. 2 T , C. 17, L. 1. ca. 120, Vert. 13/13,
Ccec. pyl. numerous.

Length of head from 3 to 3|, of caudal fin 7 to 8f , height of body 3 to 3 in
the total length. Eye comparatively much larger in the young than in the adult,
4i\ to 5f diameters in the length of the head, 1| to 1| diameters from the end of
the snout. The maxilla extends to beneath the middle or (in large examples)
hind edge of the orbit : lower jaw projecting beyond the upper. Nostrils patent,
placed close together. A rough bony ridge ending in a spine, crosses the opercle.
The posterior limb of the preopercle strongly serrated, with a cluster of several
strong and irregularly placed spines at its angle, and some denticulations along its
lower limb. Inter- and sub-opercles denticulated at their approximating angles.
Preorbital denticulated. Supraorbital margin roughened, a ridge passes to the
shoulder, while a short convex median one exists on the occiput. Teeth -villiform
on the jaws, tongue, vomer, and palatine bones. Fins all the spines and fin rays
comparatively longer in the young than in the adult : dorsal spines strong,
increasing in length to the 5th, the next 3 being almost equally long, from
the 8th they decrease, bat the 11th is slightly longer than the 10th : dorsal
rays half higher than the spines. Ventral spine roughened externally. Third
anal spine somewhat the longest, the two first rough anteriorly, while the rays are
half longer than the spines. Caudal rounded. Gill-rakers most developed in
the anterior branchial arch, the outer limb of which contains about twelve, the
longest nearly one diameter of the orbit in length. Scales small, strongly
ctenoid, some are extended over a portion of the soft dorsal and anal fins, also on

18 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

the base of the caudal and between the rays. Ccecal appendages in the example
figured they were numerous, three or more springing from one root and soon
dividing ; Valenciennes states that there are only two, one of which is very short
and the other very long, but I found upwards of seventy in the single example I
dissected. Colours of a grayish-brown or stone colour, irregularly marbled or
with large light blotches, which become less visible in the adult. Fins dark,
almost black, while the caudal in the adult has a light outer edge.

Names and their origin. Schneider gave Americanus as the specific name of this
fish, which was described and figured from a drawing sent him by Dr. Latham,
who stated the native habitat was America. It is called in Devonshire, Wreck fish,
because it follows floating timbers. The term Stone-bass employed by Couch
was originally given by Sloane to a Pagrus from Jamaica adverted to by Ray
(p. 132) : Lowe states it to be called Jew-fish by the English in Madeira, where
the natives term it chernotte if small, cherne when large.

Habits. This appears, as a rule, to be a fish living in deep waters, and Couch
observes that when a piece of timber covered with barnacles, Lepades, is brought
by the currents from the more southern regions which these fish inhabit,
considerable numbers of them sometimes accompany it. In the Mediterranean it
is found to be solitary, frequenting deep waters having a rocky bottom. Mr.
Holdsworth observed " the crew of the ' Providence' smack found a large log of
mahogany in Start Bay, covered with long barnacles and surrounded by a shoal
of these fish. They jigged (i.e., caught with a pole having a barbed hook at the
end) 4 or 5." Ships having foul bottoms in water where they abound and
covered with barnacles, are followed by shoals of these fishes when becalmed. It
feeds on molluscs and small fishes. Valenciennes found sardines in the stomach
of one he dissected.

Means of capture. Couch says that when a mass of wreck floats in sight of a
ship in the northern part of the Atlantic, and the weather is favourable, a boat is
often despatched to obtain some of these fish, which is effected by piercing them
with a spear known as grayns. As many as 35 have been secured at one time by
a single boat on our own coast.

Breeding. In the summer in the Mediterranean according to Risso.

Hermaphroditism. Professor Rolleston showed me at Oxford an example which
had the roe white in its superior two-thirds, while in its lower third it was of a
brown colour and distinct from the upper. The appearance externally was such
as might be anticipated in a hermaphrodite, but the microscope failed to prove it
to be one.

Diseases. Risso states that this fish is tormented with numerous filiform
parasites of a reddish colour, which inhabit its intestines, causing it to possess
an insatiable appetite.

As food. Reputed to be excellent, the flesh being white, tender, and of a good
flavour.

Habitat. From the seas of Norway to the British Isles, and the coasts of
France and Portugal to the Mediterranean, where it remains through the whole
year. It is common at Madeira, extending to the Cape of Good Hope, and the
Island of St. Paul's, in the Southern Indian Ocean. It has also been recorded by
Forster as Perca prognathus, locally termed patb-terci, from Queen Charlotte's Isle
on the western shores of North America.

It was first obtained in British waters by Couch, who observes that on the south
and west coasts of England it is well known to the fishermen. It is occasionally
found in deep water oil* Cornwall : is not uncommon in the Bristol Channel (Baker
of Bridgewater) or on the Devonshire coast (Holdsworth). In the year 1845 it was
reported as common between the Scilly Isles and Land's End. It has been taken
at Dingle Bay in Ireland where it was captured August 2nd, 1847, in a floating
meal-barrel (Moore).

This fish attains to over 6 feet in length. Mr. Cornish (Zool. p 424) obtained
one at Penzance, August 24th, 1878 more than 20 inches long. The largest seen
by Couch weighed 20 lb. The specimen figured is 1\ inches long, and I am
indebted for it to Professor Hubrecht of Ley den.

PERCIBvE. 19

Genus VI. Dentex,* Guvier.

Gymnocranius, pt. Klunzinger : Paradentex, pt. Bleeker and Synagris (Klein)
Bleeker.

Branchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchioB present. Body oblong, rather
elongated, and a little elevated. Eyes of medium or rather large size. Mouth
moderately protractile, its cleft more or less horizontal : jaws of about equal length.
Preopercle entire or feebly serrated : opercle without any or ivith a not very prominent
spine: the distance between the eye and the angle of the mouth considerable.
Generally strong canines, from 4 to 6 in number, in the front part of both jaws,
almost invariably in the upper : a conical outer lateral row in either jaw: vomer,
palatines, and tongue edentulous. One scaleless dorsal fin, having from 10 to 13
spines : anal with 3 and from nine to eleven rays : spines generally weak and more
or less receivable into a scaly groove: caudal forked. Scales ctenoid, of moderate
size : more than 3 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle : none on the
front of the snout, jaws, or preorbital. Air-bladder simple, not constricted but
notched posteriorly. Pyloric appendages few.

This genus has been divided into those with more than 3 rows of scales across
the preopercle Dentex, and such as only have 3 rows, Synagris. Even thus
restricted it has been further subdivided into Gymnocranius or Paradentex, being
those forms wherein the scales do not extend forwards on to the upper surface of
the head so far as the eye, the upper jaw is more protractile and the canines are
weaker.

These fishes were included among the Sparoids by Cuvier, with which their
habits have perhaps more analogy than with the true sea Perches.

Geographical distribution. Occasional wanderers have been taken on the south
coast of England, while they are found through the Mediterranean, the Atlantic,
Indian and North Pacific Oceans, also the Red Sea.

1. Dentex vulgaris, Plate VII.

Dentex, Colum. viii, c. 16 ; Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. vi, p. 69, t. xviii ;
Gesner, 1598, f. 26, c. fig. ; Willughby, lib. iv, c. xiii, p. 312, t. V. 3 ; Ray,
p. 132.

Synagris, Belon. p. 181 ; Salv. p. Ill; Rondel, v. c. 19, p. 150 c. fig. ; Aldrov.
lib. iv, t. 166.

Cynaidus, Gronov. Zooph. p. 60, No. 214.

Sparus Jonsoni, Walb. Artedi, 1792, iv, p. 302.

Sparus dentex, Gmel. Linn. p. 1278 ; Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 102, pi. 1,
f. 190 ; Bloch, t. eclxviii ; Shaw, Zool. iv, pt. 2, f. 408 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv,
pi. lxxiii ; Lacep. iv, p. 121 ; Turton, p. 98 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 253 ; De la
Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 317 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii, c. 2, p. 251.

Cichla dentex, Bl. Schn. p. 337.

Sparus gibbosus, Rafin. Caratteri, 1810, p. 47, No. 126 (adult).

Sparus cetti, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 256.

Dentex cetti. Risso, Europ. Merid. iii, p. 256.

,, vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 220, pi. cliii ; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 212 ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 357 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. Ill, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 127 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 153 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 51 ; Val. in Webb
and Berthel. lies Canar. Poiss. p. 36 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 366 ; Steind. Ich.
Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 22.

Dentex gibbiceps, Reuss, Isis, 1832, p. 626 (adult).

Dentex Johnsoni, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 19.

* Huro nigricans or the Black Bass from the Delaware river, America, has been extensively
introduced by the Marquis of Exeter into the waters of his estate at Stamford, where they may be
acclimatized and widely spread. About 965 appear to have been landed alive, and their average
weight is now (Oct. 1880) about half a pound each. Land and Water, Oct. 16th, 1880.

2 *

20 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Dentex, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 203, pi. xlv.

B. vi, D. ifi-H P. 15, V. 1/5, A. f, c. 17, L, 1, 60-65, L, tr. 8/17, Coec. pyl. 5,
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 3f to 3, of caudal fin 5 to 5|, height of hody 3i to 3| in
the total length. Eye comparatively much larger in the young than in the
adult, 4| to 5|- diameters in the length of the head, 1^ to 2\ diameters from the
end of the snout, and 1 to \\ diameters apart. Jaws of about the same length
anteriorly, the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. Nostrils
patent, the posterior the larger. Preorbital large, its height in the young
equalling about 1 diameter of the orbit, but in the adult from If to even
2 diameters : it is about 1/4 longer than high. Bones of the head entire.
Teeth 4 large curved canines in either jaw, the outer pairs much the strongest,
while there is an inner row of small teeth : laterally a row of pointed ones :
none on the tongue, vomer, or palatine bones. Ems spines of dorsal weak,
increasing in length to the 4th or 5th which equals half the length of the head
and rather exceeds that of the longest ray. Pectoral nearly as long as the head.
Third anal spine rather longer than the second. Caudal forked. Scales finely
ctenoid, 8 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle, which likewise
has a few scales, irregularly placed, along its limb. Colours it may be beautifully
varied, being silvery interchanged with light blue on the back and some blue
spots on the sides. On the front of the head wavy lines of gold, silver, and
purple : eyes blue with a golden iris. Dorsal fin bluish-yellow, pectoral and
caudal reddish. One form of colour, which may be due to age, is the existence of
a large yellow spot at the base of the opercle, and extending over the interopercle.
The variety, D. cetti, was examined by M. Laurillard at Nice, and he found the
spot well marked in the adult, but absent from the immature.

Names and their origin. Cynodon or " dogs' teeth " refers to its large canines,
the term four-toothed gilt head has a similar origin.

Habits. Exceedingly voracious and a rapid swimmer. During the winter it
retires to the deeper water, but about June seeks the shallower places, approaching
the mouths of rivers where it deposits its ova between the crevices of stones and
rocks.

Means of capture. Large fisheries of the Dentex are carried on in the warmer
European climes.

As food. Palatable and wholesome when fresh, while it salts well. It is
prepared by cutting in slices and packing in barrels with vinegar and spices :
thus treated it keeps for months.

Habitat. From the south coast of England to the Mediterranean and the
Canary Isles.

Edward has mentioned an example from Troup Head in Banffshire. The first
example obtained in this country was received by Pennant from Billingsgate, it
had been captured at Hastings, April 9th, 1805, and weighed 16 lb. Mr. Cocks
recorded two more in Couch's work, one of which was 32 inches in length, which
he purchased in the fish-market at Falmouth in November, 1846 : the second was
obtained from the same place in August, 1851, and measured 56 inches.

This fish attains a large size. Duhamel observes that it may weigh 70 lb.
For the example figured, life-size, I am indebted to Professor Peters, Director of
the Berlin Zoological Museum.

MULLIDjE. 21

Family II. MULLIDiE, Swainson.

Branchiostegals four: pseudobranchiaB present. Body rather elongated.
Profile of head more or less parabolic. Eyes lateral, and of moderate size.
Mouth rather small, having a lateral cleft. Two stiff barbels below the chin
belonging to the hyal apparatus. Teeth feeble and variously placed in the jaws
and mouth. Two dorsal fins, situated at some distance asunder : the anal
similar to tbe second dorsal : ventral with one spine and five rays. Scales large,
feebly ctenoid, and rather deciduous. Air-bladder, when present, simple.
Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution. Seas of the temperate portions of Europe as well
as in most of those of the tropics : more numerous in the eastern than in the
western hemisphere. Many young and some adults of exotic species have been
captured in rivers.

Genus I. Mullus, Linnceus.

Definition as given for the Family. Teeth in the lower but none in the upper jaw :
present on the vomer and palatine bones.

Geographical distribution. From Scandinavia through the seas and coasts of
temperate Europe, the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Black Sea : also at
least as far south in the North Atlantic Ocean as Madeira and the Canary Isles.

Termed Trigle by the Greeks, from ancient times until the present, under the
supposition of their breeding three times yearly or else according to Athenasus
that they only breed three times throughout their entire existence, their internal
organs being subsequently destroyed by parasitic worms. It was dedicated by
the Greeks to the triple-eyed goddess Hecate or Diana. The designation by the
Romans is said to have been changed to Mullus, framed, it has been supposed,
on their colour, which resembled that of the sandals worn by the Alban kings, and
subsequently by the Roman consuls, and which were afterwards adopted by their
emperors under the designation of Mullens.

In the time of the Caesars the Mullets seem almost to have divided with them
the allegiance of the Roman people, all of whom sought to obtain the fish for
their repasts as a luxury of no common order and the ruling fashion of the time.
When Rome could no longer supply them in sufficient quantity they were
imported from elsewhere, especially Corsica and Sicily. Salt water vivaria were
constructed at enormous expense wherein they were kept, but Columella observes
that scarcely one in several thousand survived the transfer, which mortality he
ascribed to their nobility spurning confinement. Kept in the salt water ponds
they were carefully tended and taught to know their owner and come to be fed
when their respective names were called out. Here care was taken that by
judicious feeding they did not become emaciated, but it was observed that they
never increased in size. Seneca states that when the time had arrived for
presenting them at their owners' feast they were most valued if they expired in
the presence of the guests. Introduced in glass globes they were drowned in
piquant sauces or slowly boiled on the banqueting table before the company who
were thus able to view in comfort the varied and beautiful changing hues of the
expiring fish. Did it appear likely to burst during the process of cooking, skilful
cooks are said to have hindered this catastrophe by kissing the mullet's mouth !

These fishes realized high prices in Rome, due to the estimation in which they
were held, or the notoriety gained by the purchaser who paid the most excessive
sum: while the larger they were the more they were valued as being obtained
with greater difficulty. It is said that about the time of Horace they had attained
to the maximum of their glory. Martial informs us that the price of a 4| lb. fish
was ruinous : one of 6 lb. produced a sum equivalent to 48 ; and Asinius Celer,
an official who had attained consular dignity, paid 64. lis 8d for one still larger:
while even 240 was realized for an example of unusual size procured on the day
of a grand feast. A Roman is reputed to have disposed of a valuable slave in
order that with the proceeds he might for once indulge in eating a mullet : as

22 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Juvenal remarks, the fisherman could have been purchased for less than his fish.
But as time went on the abnormal value of the mullet declined, until in the fourth
century, Macrobius assures us that it was not excessive.

1. Mullus barbatus, Plate VIII, fig. 1.

TplyXt) Arist. ii, c. 17, iv, c. 11, v, c. 9, vi, c. 17, viii, c. 2 and 13, ix, c. 2
and 37 ; iElian, ii, c. 41 ; Athen. vii, pp. 324, 325.

Mullus, Ovid, v. 123; Pliny, ix, c. 17, 18, 51; Martial, x, ep. 30, 31, xi, ep.
50; Colum. viii, c. 17; Belon. 170. Triglia, Salv. fol. 235. Mullus minor,
Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. 1, p. 61, t. xvii, f. 5. Mullus Belonii, Willughby,
p. 285, t. S. 7, f. 2 ; Ray, p. 90. Mullus barbatus, Rondel, ix, c. 4, p. 290, c. fig. ;
Gesner, Aquat. p. 565. Mullus, Gronov. Zooph. p. 85, No. 286. Trigla, No. 1,
Artedi, Genera, p. 43, Synon. 71.

Surmullet, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 271 (Ed. 2) iii, p. 265.

Mullus barbatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 495 ; Bonnaterre, Ich. p. 143, pi. lix,
f . 232 ; Bloch, t, 348, f . 2 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1338 ; Bl. Scbn. p. 79 ; Shaw, Zool.
iv, p. 611; Mart. Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 426; Turton, p. 101; Cuv. and
Val. hi, p. 442, pi. lxx ; Yarrell, Brit. Pish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 32, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 36 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 102 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 338 ; Swainson, Fishes ii, p. 234 ;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 170 ; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Poiss.
p. 373 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 14 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 401 ; Steindach.
Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien. 1867, lvi, p. 635 or Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 33.

Bed Mullet, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, i, p. 217, pi. xlvii.

Variety Mullus surmuletus, Plate VIII, fig. 2.

Mullus. Pliny, Hist. Mund. ix, c. 17; Belon. Aq. p. 176. Mullus major, Salv.
fol. 236 ; Aldrov. Pise. p. 123 ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. 1, p. 61,
t. xvii, f. 6 ; Willugh. p. 285, t. S. 7, f . 1 ; Ray, p. 91. Trigla, No. 2, Artedi
Genera 43, Syn. 72. Mullus barbatus, Klein, Mss. 5, p. 22. Striped surmullet,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 274, pi. liii (Ed. 2) iii, p. 368, pi. lxiv.

Mullus surmuletus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 496 ; Bonnaterre, Ich. p. 144, pi. lix, f. 233;
Bloch, t. lvii ; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 613, pi. lxxxviii ; Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 71 ;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1339 ; Lacep. iii, p. 394 ; Bl. Schn. p. 77 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i,
pi. xii ; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 427 ; Turton, p. 102 ; Cuv. and Val.
iii, p. 433 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poissons, pi. xix, f. 2 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 1) i, p. 27, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 31 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 97 ; Mem. Brit. An. p. 216 ;
Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 337 ; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 38 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 14 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 70 ; Giinther,
Catal. i, p. 401 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 17.

Mullus barbatus, De la Roche, An. Mus. xiii, p. 316 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 108.

Surmullet, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 208, pi. xlvii.

B. iv, D. 7-8 | |, P. 16-18, V. 1/5, A. f , C. 15, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. ^' Ccec.

pyl. 18-22, Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4 to 4|, height of body 3| to 4|, length of caudal fin 4-| to 5
in the total length. Eye high up, 1^ to 2 diameters from the end of the
snout, 1^ diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, and 1 to 1^ diameters
apart. Profile of forehead more or less steep, in some examples descending
almost vertically. Preorbital much higher than broad sometimes nearly twice as
much. The posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the anterior
edge of the orbit : snout, preorbital and cheeks covered with open pores.
Barbels well developed, and reaching to beneath the hind edge of the preopercle.
Teeth in about 2 rather obtuse rows in the lower jaw, none in the upper. Rounded
teeth on vomer and palatine bones. Tongue toothless. Fins spines of first
dorsal flattened and weak at their extremities, the first spine very short (apt to be
overlooked), the second, third and fourth of about the same length and equalling
2/3 the length of the head : subsequently the spines decrease in length. An
interspace of about four scales between the two dorsal fins. Second anal spine
much the longer. Intestines the length of the intestinal tract from the pylorus

MULLIM!. 23

to the vent equals half that of the entire fish excluding the caudal fin. The
pyloric appendages consist of some short and other long ones. Scales when at
Mevagissey, in August this year, Mr. Dunn procured for me some splendid
examples of this fish, and although the majority had 2-|- rows of scales between
the lateral-line and the back, others had 3i. Lateral-line the tubes are much
branched. Colours these vary considerably : in the M. barbatus the fish being of
a plain red colour, whereas the M. surmuletus is more or less longitudinally striped,
which stripes may be sometimes concealed, whde the rich satin-red colour becomes
most vivid after the removal of the scales.

Varieties. Gronovius considered the Mullus barbatus as the male and
M. surmuletus as the female of a single species : but most subsequent authors
considered them as specifically distinct. During the last few years it has been
advanced that the two are varieties of one form. The distinctions given, and
which still pertain to some examples, are as follows :

M. barbatus. The profile of the snout almost vertical, more so than in the
M. surmuletus. It is red without any longitudinal stripes, and Tarrell considered
the position of the fins differed a little, the first dorsal being said to be more in
advance of the pectoral fin and the ventral further behind than in the surmullet :
he gives one yellow band along the side below the lateral-line. This form is reputed
never to attain the size of the surmullet, and it has been conjectured that they
become more striped with age.

M. surmuletus. Has generally an oblique profile of the snout. It is of a pale
pink becoming yellowish on the sides and along the abdomen : while from three
to five bright yellow bands pass from the head along the sides, the two central
ones reaching the base of the caudal fin, one above, the other below the lateral-
line. First dorsal fin with two longitudinal dark bands, the upper being nearly
black and placed on a milk-white ground. Second dorsal with two or more
oblique dark bands, and occasionally the caudal fin is also obliquely banded.
The outer edges of the scales are often darker than their bases.

Professor Steindachner observes that he had examined not less than 75
examples and found so many variations in the form of their rostral profiles that
he felt compelled to consider the M. barbatus and M. surmuletus as the extreme
limits of variation of a single species.

Names. The M. barbatus is known as the red surmullet, the plain red mullet,
or in Welsh Hyrddyn coch. The M. surmuletus is termed surmullet or striped red
mullet. Be honing van de poon, Dutch. Rouget-barbet, French.

Habits. These fishes along the southern coast are found in Cornwall at about
20 miles out to sea in March, and from 5 to 10 in May, when they come in with
the mackerel, and are said to be of a roving disposition, About the end of June
they arrive close in shore on sandy spots which are near to rocks, and as soon as
startled they dash in among them or under the sea weed. The best and finest
coloured ones are in the west portion of the channel dividing England from France.

But as might be anticipated, we find occasional visitors on our coasts when
least expected, thus on December 24th, 1878, Mr. Cornish obtained one 16 inches
long and in good condition at Penzance : and in June 1866 one was captured in a
drift net 15 leagues south-west of Scilly in about 60 fathoms water : and Couch
alludes to a trawl vessel of Plymouth which one winter took so many of these
fishes that they realized 20. As to the food they eat, opinions vary : the ancients
considered them very foul feeders, delighting mostly on corpses, the more putrid
they become the larger the assemblies of these fish : the ocean after a sea battle
was said to abound with them. It is more probably they devour small Crustacea,
crabs, molluscs, &c. In an aquarium they eat pieces of mussel.

Means of capture. Ground seines, trammels, trawls and mullet nets.
Dr. Bullmore observes that at Penzance, on their first appearance, they are mostly
captured in trawls, at the next spring-tides they become more abundant and are
taken in ground seines, sometimes as many as 50 or 60 in a night. At Mevagissey
the trammel is formed of three parts fastened by a common head-line and footline.
The meshes of the middle piece will only receive the head and shoulders of the
fish, while the outermost pieces will allow the entrance of the mullet's body so

24 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

far as its middle. These are set in accordance with certain inshore marks known
to the fisherman. The foot rope must touch the bottom or the fish will pass
under it. The reason they are occasionally taken in drift nets is assumed to be
that when changing their locality they swim near the surface even if the water
is very deep. Occasionally they take a bait.

Immediately one is captured, or as soon as landed, the scales are stripped off
by the thumb nail, which occasions a contraction of the pigment cells, for were
this not done the brilliant red colour observed in the fishmongers' shops would
be less apparent and the fish of less value for the table. Irrespective of this,
were the scales not so removed, and the fish to dry, as it would, while in transit
to the market, they (the scales) become very adherent, and are with some difficulty
removed without breaking the skin, which would occasion disfigurement. Those
caught in a trammel being less bruised than such as are taken in a trawl keep
longer and are more valued.

Breeding. In Britain the striped surmullets, both male and female, are met
with spawning along the south coast from July to September. Mr. Dunn observes
that " they shed only a little at a time, continuing their spawning probably over
a month, and different from all other fish I know. They get very fat at this
time." By October there are young, about 2 inches in length, and from one
eighth to one quarter of an ounce in weight.

As food. This fish is held in high estimation throughout most of Continental
Europe as well as in this country. In France the plain red mullets of Provence
and Toulon are most valued, while in Britain the finest examples of Simmdlets
are obtained from the English Channel. Its flesh is of good flavour, white, firm,
flaky, destitute of fat and easy of digestion. It attains its highest perfection
during the summer months, but is seen throughout the year in London
fishmongers' shops. Its liver is usually deemed its most savoury morsel, to which
its head was formerly considered next in delicacy.

This fish when cooked is usually not opened, only its gills being removed, on
which account it is termed the " woodcock of the sea," it is closely wrapped up in a
sheet of buttered paper securely tied with packthread. It is then roasted in a
Dutch oven, or gently broiled over a clear fire, or baked for 20 or 25 minutes. For
sauce the liqiior which exudes is added to melted butter, some essence of anchovy
and a little lemon juice. A glass of port- wine or claret may be used as an
addition. In Venice it is eaten soused : the fish is kept soaking some time in a
pickle of capsicum vinegar before being eaten.

Habitat. From Scandinavia through the seas and coasts of temperate Europe.
While in the North Atlantic it extends as far south as Madeira and the Canary
Isles. It also abounds in the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and is found in the
Black Sea. The most abundant form in the Mediterranean appears to be the
M. barbahis, while the larger striped variety, M. surmuletus, is common in the
North Atlantic.

In England the surmullet is most numerous along the south and west coasts,
rapidly decreasing in numbers as we go northwards, still in some seasons they are
abundant off the county of Norfolk ; thus in 1831 during one week in May 10,000
were despatched from Yarmouth to London (Paget).

In Scotland Pennant stated he had heard of its capture but did not see the
fish : it has been recorded from the Moray Frith (Gordon), and both it and the
plain red mullet from Banffshire (Edward).

The plain red mullet has been taken in Berwickshire (Johnson) and at
Falmouth (Cock). Mr. Dunn at Mevagissey tells me that he has never seen an
example during the many years he has been engaged on fish and fishing.

In Ireland the surmullet was included among the indigenous fish by Brown in
1774: it has also been taken in Ventry Harbour (Andrews); Dublin Bay
(Warren) ; Ballinskelligs Bay (Earl of Ducie).

The usual size of this fish is from 1 to 2 lb., and about 14 inches in length ;
but an example has been recorded from Penzance taken in a trammel in October,
1875, and which was 16f inches long, and weighed 2 lb. 6 oz. (Cornish), while
Yarrell records one of 3 lb. 6 oz. taken at Weymouth. At Mevagissey it has
likewise been captured 17 inches in length.

SPARID^E. 25

Family, III SPARIDiE, Garner

Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchiaB well-developed. Body
oblong and compressed. Eyes of moderate size, lateral. Mouth in front of snout,
having a lateral cleft. Bones of the head with a rudimentary muciferous system.
No teeth on the palate (except in the Genus Pimelepterus) : more or less broad
and cutting or conical teeth in front of the jaws, or a lateral series of molars, or
both conjoined. A single dorsal fin formed by a spinous and soft portion, their
bases being of nearly equal extent : anal with three spines : lower pectoral rays
branched in most of the genera : ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays.
Lateral-line continuous, not extending on to the caudal fin. Scales cycloid, or
feebly ctenoid.

Geographical distribution. Seas of temperate and tropical regions. Some
enter fresh waters.

SYNOPSIS OF BRITISH GENERA.

First group Cantharina.

Broad and cutting teeth in front of the jaws : no molars : palate edentulous.
Lower pectoral rays branched.

1. Cantharus. Cardiform teeth, with the outer row slightly compressed and
lanceolate. Cheeks scaly : vertical fins scaleless.

2. Box. A single row of notched and trenchant teeth in both jaws. Cheeks
scaly : vertical fins scaleless.

Second group Pagrina.

Cutting teeth in front of the jaws ; and molars along the sides.

3. Pagrus. Scales on cheeks. Canine teeth: two rows of molars in the
upper jaw.

4. Pagellus. Scales on cheeks. No canine teeth.

First group Cantharina.

Broad and cutting teeth in front of the jaws : no molars : palate edentulous.
Lower pectoral rays branched.

Genus I. Cantharus, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice present. Villiform or cardiform teeth in
the jaws, those forming the outer row being compressed and lanceolate. Cheeks
scaled. Dorsal fin tvith 10 or 11 spines, which can be received into a scaly sheath.
Scales of moderate size. Pyloric appendages few. Air-bladder divided posteriorly
into two horns.

Geographical distribution. rom Scandinavia and the British Isles, through
the Atlantic Ocean to the Cape of Good Hope and the Seychelles. Also extended
thi-ouo-hout the Mediterranean.

26 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1. Cantharus lineatus, Plate IX.

Cantharus, Rondel, lib. v, c. iv, p. 120, c. fig. ; Gesner, 1598, fol. 22, c. fig. ;
Aldrovand. 2, c. 20, p. 185 ; Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. 5, art. 11, p. 72, t. xix, f. 5 ;
Willugh. lib. iv, c. viii, p. 309, t. v. f . 2 ; Ray, p. 130 ; Rutty, Dublin, i, p. 368.
Breme de Mer, Dubamel, pt. 2, sect, iv, pi. iv, f. 1.

Sparus cantharus, Gmel. Linn. p. 1274 ; Bl. Schn. p. 17 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii,
Sect, iv, pi. vii, f. 1 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 223.

Spams brama, Bloch, v, p. 77.

Sparus lineatus, Montagu, Mem. Wern. Soc. ii, 1815, p. 451, pi. xxiii.

Sparus vetula, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. 1822, xiv, p. 79.

Sparus sciandra, Rosenth. Ich. Taf. t. xiv, f. 1.

Pagrus lineatus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 211.

Cantharus vulgaris and brama, Cuv. and Val. vi, pp. 319, 328, pi. clx ; Guichen.
Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 53, and Ex. Sc. Moree, Zool. pi. xvii, f. 1, a. b.

Gantharus griseus, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 333 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 358 ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 114, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 130, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 156 ;
Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 178.

Gantharus lineatus, Thompson, Ann. and Mag. (2), 1846, p. 313, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 91 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 16 ; Giinther, Cat. i, p. 414
Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 47; Collett, Norges, Fiske, p. 17.

Old wife, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 222, pi. xlix.

B. vi, D. \\, P. 14, V. 1/5, A. T V, C. 17, L. 1. 72, L. tr. 9/19, Ccec. pyl. 4,

Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4^ to 4>\, of candal fin 5 to 6, height of body 2\ to
3 in the total length. Eye 3 to 3^ or in some large examples even 4
diameters in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from end of snout, and 1
apart. Body compressed. The posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to
beneath the front edge of the orbit. Posterior edge of preopercle finely roughened.
Opercular spine distinct. Lower edge of preorbital usually notched by the
maxilla, but sometimes entire. Teeth cardiform in both jaws, with the outer
row somewhat the largest and slightly compressed ; none on the vomer, palatines,
nor on the tongue. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength, increasing in length
to the fourth and fifth. Pectoral as long as or slightly longer than the head.
Anal spines shorter than the rays. Caudal forked. Scales ctenoid, about 8 rows
below the eye over the cheek ; 16 rows between the lateral-line and base of ventral
fin. Ccecal appendages four, rather large. Air-bladder ending posteriorly in two
horns, which are separated one from the other by the interhsemal spines. Colours
gray, becoming lighter and dashed with gold on the sides and beneath : forehead
and cheeks purplish. Below the lateral-line are 3 or 4 parallel, or sometimes
irregularly horizontal golden bands, along the body. Dorsal fin dark, with 2 or 3
nearly black bands composed of spots. Pectoral, caudal, and anal straw-coloured.
Caudal gray-edged, margined externally with white : some bands of spots along
the anal. Ventrals slate-colour along the centre, with light or even white edges.
The colours in these fish are liable to considerable variation.

Names. Black sea-bream : old wife. Rutty observes that in the county of
Dublin it was "vulgarly but improperly termed sea tench" but it is questionable
whether he referred to this fish.

Habits. Prefers rocky ground, feeding on the finer kinds of sea weeds. It is
found in bays and harbours, and frequently captured by anglers fishing from the
shore, rocks or piers. Cuv. and Val. observe that the remains of Fuci
were detected in it. It is most abundant about July and August, after whi^h it
appears to retire to deeper water. Couch records an example captured as late in
the year as Christmas, after a cold season, and a second in February with the roe
well developed. In aqiiaria they are fond of shrimps.

How captured. Generally in summer and autumn by baits, as lob worms or
pieces of mussel, or nets.

sparim:. 27

As food. Its flesh is usually soft and little esteemed, but those taken in
August and September at Boulogne and Calais are said to have firmer flesh and a
moderately good taste.

Habitat. Rare off the coasts of southern Norway, Ireland and Scotland, but
becoming more common along the west and south coast of England and in the
North Atlantic Ocean to Madeira and the Canary Islands : while it also abounds
throughout the Mediterranean.

This fish was first recorded in Britain by Colonel Montagu in 1815, as Sparus
lineatus, it is distributed along the entire south and up a portion of the west
coasts of England ; rarely in companies, but usually more solitary in its habits.
In the Westminster Aquarium, however, I observe that they constantly swim
together in companies. In Banffshire " a few of them are generally procured
every autumn or about the beginning of winter" (Edward).

Ireland. May, 1846, the first example recorded of late years,was captured by
a hand-line baited with a lug-worm in Belfast Bay. Thompson says it had
D. 10/11, A. 1/11, and the upper caudal lobe the longer. Another was taken in
November at Kilmore, in the County of Wexford. While Rutty remarks
"found about the rocks of Bullock, Dunleary, and Killeny Bay."

As to the size it attains, Couch mentions one of 16 inches in length : and
Yarrell one of 17 inches, while it has been taken up to 20 inches. Mr. Cornish
states that one 7| inches in length was taken at Penzance, May 24th, 1880, and
adds that he had not seen so small an example since May 26th, 1859.

28 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II. Box, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Boops, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchiaz present. Body elongated and someiohat
rounded. A front row of incisors, having notched margins, in either jaw : no m,olars.
Spines of dorsal fin (11 to 15) can be received into a scaly sheath. Scales of moderate
size, extended over the cheeks. Intestinal tract convoluted and rather long : pyloric
appendages few. Air-bladder divided posteriorly into two horns.

Geographical distribution. From the southern coast of the British Isles south-
wards to Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope, also throughout the Mediterranean.
Found in the Caribbean Sea in the West Indies.

1. Box vulgaris, Plate X.

Box, Plin. xxii, c. 11 ; Belon. de Aquat. p. 230. Boops, Rondel, v, c. 11, p. 136,
c. fig. ; Gesner, p. 147 ; Aldrov. ii. c. 41, p. 231 ; Jonst. De Pise. lib. i, t. iii, c. 1,
art. 23, p. 84, t. xx, f. 6 ; Willugh. p. 317, t. U. S. f. 1 ; Ray, p. 135. Sparus, No. 6,
Artedi, Gen. p. 36.

Sparus boops, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 469 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1274 ; Briinn. Pise.
Mass. p. 44 ; Lacep. iv, pp. 97, 99 ; Bl. Schn. p. 273 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 242 ;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 424.

Box vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 348, pi. clxi ; Cuv. Reg. Anim. III. Poissons,
pi. xxxvi, f. 1; Guichenot, Explor. Sc. Alger. Poissons, p. 54; Yarrell, Zool. 1843,
p. 85, and Brit. Fishes, Second Supplement, 1860, p. 6, e. fig. and (Ed. 3) ii,
p. 159 ; Giinther, Catal. i. p. 418 ; Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port 1867, p. 49.

Boops Canariensis, Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. lies Canar. Poiss. p. 36,
pi. x, f. 1.

Sparus boops, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 223.

Boops boops, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 20.

Bogue, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 225, pi. 1.

B. vi, D. T ^ T , P. 21, V. 1/5, A. r \, C. 17, L. 1. 75, L. tr. 6/13, Ccec. pyl. 5,
Vert. 10-11/13.

Length of head 4|, of caudal fin 5J, height of body 4| to 5 in the total
length. Eye 3 to 3| diameters in the length of the head, 2/3 to 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and the same distance apart. Interorbital space
flattened and rather convex. The maxilla does not quite reach to below the front
edge of the eye in adults, but does in the young. Preorbital rather narrow,
and longer than deep. Teeth the anterior row in both jaws flattened and notched
at their cutting edge into a trefoil shape : fine ones on the vomer, palatines, and on
the tongue. Fins dorsal spines weak. Pectoral as long as the head. Last
dorsal and anal ray thickened. Caudal deeply forked. Scales cycloid, arranged
in regular lines on the body : 3 or 4 rows across the cheeks, also present on the
opercular pieces, but none along the preopercular limb. A few over the caudal fin.
Intestinal tract the stomach is small, with thin and transparent walls : its
ascending portion is narrow at its commencement, but subsequently dilates into
double its original width. There are five ccecal appendages at the pylorus, four
on the lower side of the duodenum, and one on its upper surface. The intestines
are much convoluted, while at the commencement of the rectum it suddenly
dilates and gives off a sort of little ccecum, which has been likened to a true
concal appendage, subsequent to which the intestine again contracts. Colours
yellowish-olive on the back, becoming silvery on the abdomen: three or four
golden lines pass along the sides below the lateral-line. A brown spot in the
axil of the pectoral fin.

Names. Bog a, French.

SPARID^E. 29

Habits. It feeds on sea-weeds and occasionally devours small marine animals,
but appears to subsist chiefly on a vegetable diet.

Means of capture. In Provence and Nice peculiar kinds of nets, termed
bughiera, are said to be employed for taking these fishes, while for good luck tho
boats are adorned with silver figures of the bogue.

Breeding. It is stated to spawn twice a year near the shore.

As 7 food. It is good and digestible according to Rondel, but on the
Atlantic coast of Spain, Cornide described them as disagreeable in taste, and only
eaten by the poor : while on the coast of Provence it is especially esteemed when
full of spawn, according to Valenciennes.

Habitat. From the southern shores of the British isles as far south as
Madeira and the Canaries, while an example, said to have been obtained from
St. Vincent's, in the West Indies, is in the British Museum. It is also common
throughout the Mediterranean.

The first example observed in this country was at Falmouth, in October, 1843,
when one was taken in a ground seine along with some mullets : several examples
have since been captured at the same place. June 26th, 1872, one was caught
near Plymouth ; and March 15th, 1873, a specimen, 12 inches long, was obtained
in a herring-net at Helford Harbour.

It attains at least 16 inches in length, as seen in a specimen from Lisbon in
the British Museum. For the example figured, life-size, I am indebted to
Professor Peters, Director of the Zoological Museum at Berlin.*

* Msena vulgaris, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Mendole, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 206, pi. xlvi.

This fish may be an occasional wanderer into the British seas. I think,
however, that the single example recorded, which was not kept, must from the
description have been Box vulgaris, the only difference given, being that it was
said to have pointed teeth.

30 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Second group Pagrina.
Cutting teeth in front of jaws : and molars along the sides.

Genus III. Pagrds, Cuvier.

Chrysophrys, Cuvier: Argyrops and Chrysoblephus, Swainson : Sp arus, Bleeker,
1877.

Branchiostegals six t pseudobranchiai present. Jaivs with an anterior row of
conical or compressed canines, and laterally two, three or even four rows of rounded
molars. A single dorsal fin with from 11 to lS'sometimes elongated, spines, receivable
into a groove at their base : anal with three. Scales of moderate size, extending on
to the cheeks. Air-bladder usually simple, but sometimes notched or ivith short
appendages. Pyloric appendages, when present, in small numbers.

The Genus Pagrus Cuvier is divided from Chrysophrys Cuvier, owing to the
first merely possessing 2 rows of rounded molars laterally, which in the last may
be augmented to 3 or even 4. But even in Pagrus vulgaris, a rudimentary internal
third row may be observed, and in species of Chrysophrys, a considerable latitude
in the mode of dentition is perceptible. Thus in Chrysophrys Cuvieri * Day, the
anterior teeth are conical, while the size of the molars is far less than seen in
typical species of Chrysophrys. I have for these and other reasons adopted
Steindachners views in considering the two as portions of the same genus.

Geographical distribution. From the southern shores of the British Isles,
Atlantic and Indian Oceans : Mediterranean and Red Sea to Australia.

1. Pagrus vulgaris, Plate XL

Ilaypoe, Aristot. viii, c. 13, 17.

Pagrus, Rondel, v. c. 15, p. 142 ; Artedi, Genera, p. 36. Orplms, Gesner, 1598,
f. 27, c. fig. ; Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. i, art. v, p. 68, t. xviii, f. 8. Sparus, No. 4,
Artedi, Genera, p. 36 ; Duhamel, iv, c. 2, p. 29.

Sparus pagrus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 460 ; Brunn. Pise. Mass. p. 94 ; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 408; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 241; De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 317 ;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p 425.

Sparus argenteus, Bl. Schn. p. 271.

Aurata orphus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 356.

Pagrus pagrus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 360.

Pagrus vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 142, pi. cxlviii ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1,
2 and 3 figure not description) ; Yal. in Webb and Berthel. Hist. Nat. Isles Canar.
Poiss. p. 32 ; Guichen. Explr. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 49 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 466 ;
Steindach. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 53.

Pagrus orphus, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 150, pi. cxlix; White, Catal. Brit. Fish.
p. 17; Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. Isles Canar. Poiss. p. 32 ; Giinther,
Catal. i. p. 467; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 3) ii, p. 142, c. fig. and vignette of
teeth.

Couctis sea-Bream, Couch, Zool. 1843, i, p. 81, c. fig. and Fish. Brit. Isles, i,
p. 231, pi. Hi.

Pagellus Pondeletii, Couch, Zool. 1846, p. 1406 ; Yarrell's, Brit. Fish. 2nd
Supp. p. 4.

B. vi, D. \%, P. 15, V. 1/5, A. f, C 17, L. 1. 5358, L. tr. 7/17, Ccec. pyl. 5.

Length of head 3| to 4j, of caudal fin 4| to 5, height of body 2| to 3| in the
total length. Eye diameter 3i to 4 in the length of the head, 1 to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 2 apart. Interorbital space convex. Upper profile
from the dorsal fin to the eye parabolic, from thence it abruptly descends to the
mouth, which descent is usually most vertical in old examples. The maxilla

* Day, Fishes of India, i, p. 141, pi. xxxiy, f. 3.

SPARID^E. 31

readies to beneath the middle of the eye : lower jaw slightly the longer. Pre-
opercle twice as high as broad. Preorbital large, being as high or higher than
broad, its depth exceeding the width of the eye. Teeth an onter conical row in
the upper jaw, the 4 front rows of which are enlarged : while posteriorly in both
jaws exist 2 or 3 rows of rounded molars. Two large canines anteriorly on either
side of the mandible. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength, increasing in
length to the third, from whence they equal the height of the rays and about
1/3 of that of the body. Pectoral pointed, rather longer than the head, and
reaching to above the anal spines. Ventral does not extend so far as the vent.
Second anal spine stronger, but not quite so long as the third. Caudal forked.
Scales extend forwards to above the eyes : 6 rows across the cheeks and 8 across
the opercles, those on the head being much smaller than those on the body.
Colours the front and top of the head brownish-red : back and fins, except
the anal, as if formed by a mixture of lake and vermillion : occasionally the back
has broad reddish bands descending to the abdomen : anal pale yellow : sides pale
red : under surface dull white : iris yellow. The young are plain silvery, with
reddish bands. In some examples a blue band passes from one eye to the other,
but which is said to be absent in others. Rondel observed that during'
winter it becomes of a bluish tint, which remark, however, still needs confir-
mation.

Varieties. This fish has occasioned considerable trouble to Ichthyologists from
the time of Bloch until the present, as owing to errors of identification its
occurrence on our southern shores is every now and then being recorded. Bloch's
figure of Sparus pagrus, with its black shoulder spot, is perhaps Pagellus centro-
dontus, as the illustration of its teeth does not coincide what exists in Pagrus, the
difference however between the head of Bloch's fish and what obtains in Pagellus
centrodontus will be referred to at page 37. While the figure of Pagrus in
Aldrovandus also represents the Pagellus centrodontus.

Basso seems to have described this fish in his Sparus pagrus, but he considered
it to be identical with Bloch's figure. Subsequently in his larger work he named
another fish Aurata orphus, retaining his Pagrus pagrus, identical as he still con-
sidered it, with Bloch's species.

Valenciennes held that Bloch's figure represented Pagellus centrodontus and
Risso's description Pagrus vulgaris, but he considered that Aurata orphus Risso
with a blue interorbital band and a more abrupt profile of the snout was a distinct
species : which, however, Steindachner has, it appears to me, with much justice
dissented from.

Yarrell in his Fishes of the British Isles gave a figure of Pagrus vulgaris taken
from Cuvier and Valenciennes' grand work : this he identified with the Braize or
Beclcer of the south coast of England, taking his description from a British example,
to this he added a vignette of the dentition as he found it, but the dentition and his
specimens which are still preserved in the national collection belong to Pagellus
erythrinus. Couch likewise terms the Braize or Becker, Pagrus vulgaris, and it is
more difficult to understand to what fish he refers (vol. i, p. 228, pi. li), the fin
rays are thus briefly described "dorsal nine, anal three." He states it to be
" common on the south and west of England, but it does not appear to be of
frequent occurrence in the north of England or Scotland. . . Its habits are
migratory, and its visits are confined to the summer and autumn, leaving us, on
the approach of colder weather, in the beginning of the winter. It is a solitary
fish." As Couch appears to have obtained only a single example of Pagrus, and
which he considered to be an unknown species, or Couch's sea bream, we are
justified in believing that he made some error in his diagnosis of the species,
having in reality described a Pagellus as Pagrus vidgaris, and published a figure
of an unknown fish as a representation, so far as I have been able to ascertain.

Habits. Risso observes that it approaches the shore in summer. While
Valenciennes, who examined the intestines of one (P. orphus), remarks that the
stomach and abdominal cavity were filled with the remains of small shell fish
having horny opercles, consuming such as have a less hard shell than Turbo
or Trochus.

32 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Breeding. Risso found that his Aurata orphus deposited its eggs on the
shingly shore in summer.

Habitat. From the Canary Islands in the north Atlantic as far as the British
coast, where a straggler has been obtained : through the Mediterranean, including
the Gulf of Genoa.

The single undoubted British example hitherto recorded -was one weighing 6 lb.
20 inches in length, and captured by bait, November 8th, 1842, at a rocky ledge
termed the Edges, about two miles south of Polperro in Cornwall, and was at once
taken to Mr. Couch. Its form is of the variety orphus, but its colours were those
of the Pagrus vulgaris.

This species is said to attain to 11 lb. or more.

The figure is from Couch's stuffed example : the teeth after Steindachner's
figure, I.e., and taken from another specimen, as Yarrell has figured this apparatus
from Couch's specimen in which they are injured or worn from age.

2 Pagrus auratus, Plate XII.

XpvaocppvQ, Arist. i, c. 5, ii, c. 17, iv, c. 10, v, c. 10, vi, c. 17, viii, c. 2, 13, 15,
19 ; Athen. vii, p. 328 ; iElian, xiii, c. 28, xvi, c. 12 ; Oppian, i. p. 7.

Aurata, Columella, viii, c. 16 ; Plin. ix, c. 16 ; Belon. pp. 192, 193 ; Rondel,
v, c. 2, p. 115, c. fig.; Salvian. fol. 174&, 175; Gesner, pp. 110, 128; Jonston,
De Pise. lib. i, t. 3, c. i, art, 8, p. 70, t. xix, f . 2 ; Willughby, p. 307, t. V, f . 5 ;
Ray, p. 131. Aurata vulgaris, Aldrov. ii, c. 15, p. 171. Sparus, No. 1, Artedi
Genera, 25, Syn. 63 ; Gronov. Mus. Ich. p. 38, No. 90 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii, Sect.
4, pi. xi, f. i. Mochar, Osbeck, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. iv, p. 100. Lunulated gilt
head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 240, not pi. xlii (Ed. 2) iii, p. 327, not
pi. xlvi.

Spams aurata, Linn. Mus. Ad. Fr. 2, p. 62, and Syst. Nat. i, p. 467 ; Hasselquist,
Iter. Palest, p. 337; Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 36; Gmel. Linn. p. 1270
Bloch, t. 266 ; Bl. Schn.p. 270 ; Lacepede, iv, p. 57 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 234
Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 424; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 211
Johnston, Fish. Berwick. Mag. Nat. Hist, vi, 1833, p. 15 ; Jenyns, Man.
Brit. Vert. p. 353.

Sparus scriptus, Bl. Schn. p. 279.

Chrysophrys aurata, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 85, pi. cxlv ; Guichen. Expl. Sc.
Alger. Poiss. p. 48 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 97, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i,
p. Ill, (Ed. 3), ii, p. 135; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 221; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 17; Gunther, Catal. i, p. 484; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1867, lvi,
p. 658.

Chrysophrys crassirostris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 98, pi. cxlvi ; Gunther, Catal. i,
p. 484.

The gilt head, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 243, pi. lvii.

Pagrus auratus, Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 56.

B. vi, D. f^ P- 16, V. 1/5, A. rT s TJ , C. 17, L. 1. 75-86, L. tr. 8-9/19, Ccec.
pyl. 3-4, Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4 to 4^, of caudal fin 5j to 5|, height of body 3| to 3| in
the total length. Eye 3| to 5| diameters in the length of the head, 1|-
to 2| diameters from the end of the snout and also apart. Interorbital space
rather convex in adults. Preorbital 2/3 as high as long. The lower jaw
not quite so long anteriorly as the upper : the maxilla reaches to beneath
the front edge or even (in the young) the first third of the eye. Teeth
an anterior row of about 6 conical teeth in either jaws : laterally rounded molars
increasing in size posteriorly and forming 2 rows in the lower and 3 in the upper
jaw, the posterior and internal ones of which are the largest, increasing in
size with age. None on the vomer, palatines, or tongue. Fins dorsal spines of
moderate strength, the 3rd and 4th being somewhat the longest. Pectoral longer
than the head. The second and third anal spines of nearly the same length
and strength. Caudal forked. Scales with slightly irregular edges and straight
parallel lines, 7 rows cross the cheek between the eye and the angle of the

SPARID^E. 33

preopercle. Intestines in an example 5| inches long the distance from the pylorus
to the vent was 3 inches : there were only 3 ccecal appendages. Colours silvery,
becoming lighter on the sides and almost white on the abdomen : traces of
longitudinal lines have been observed along the body and a dark spot at the
base of the pectoral fin. A crescentic golden band, the concavity of which
is directed backwards, passes between the eyes : top of the head iridescent green.
A dark spot at the upper end of the opercle.

Although Pennant has the lunulated gilt-head in his work, such is composed of
two species, the figure distinctly representing Pagellus centrodontus, whereas the
description is partially that of Pagrus auratus, which error has been repeated in
several more recent woi'ks.

Names and their origin. Gilt-head and gilt-poll from its predominant colours,
and hmulated gilt-head from the form of its interorbital golden band. It was
consecrated to Venus by the Romans under the name of Aurata sargon (Halliwell).
In Rome during the time of Belonius these fishes had different designations accord-
ing to their lengths ; those a palm long were named sauguene, if a cubit in length
daurades, while the intermediate sizes were termed meiane. Very large ones were
known as subredaurades. Thunor-bodu, Anglo-Saxon ; Mr. Skeat considers the
term to apply to this fish, it means " thunder-boder," or the precursor of thunder,
which would seem to be an example of folklore. Peneuryn or Eurben, Welsh.
La Baurade vulgaire, French.

Habits. These fish appear to frequent the sea on bold and rocky coasts,
where they feed on crabs and shell fish, which their powerful molar teeth would be
well adapted to crush and grind up. Duhamel states that they stir up the sand
with their tails to obtain small shell-fish. They assemble in shoals at the mouths
of rivers, but are said to be very sensible to impressions of cold when they retire
to deeper waters : and Duhamel observed that fishes of this genus died in numbers
during the severe winter of 1766.

Means of capture. Nets and lines. Off the coast of Languedoc, the hooks are
baited with pieces of mussel or other shell fish, as Venus decussata, or if these are
unobtainable with shrimps or pieces of tunny.

B reeding. Said to spawn in summer.

As food. Coarse, but much valued by the Romans, who kept them in
vivaria on an oyster diet, which improved their appearance and heightened their
flavour. In some places on the continent of Europe they are still esteemed,
although considered to be rather dry : those which have entered brackish waters
being preferred.

Habitat. From the British coast as far south in the Atlantic as the Cape of
Good Hope (? variety P. globiceps C. and V.). Also through the Mediterranean to
the Adriatic.

This fish is a wanderer to the British shores, and has been recorded from
Devonshire. Fleming had "seen it once caught in the estuary of the Tayin August,"
but perhaps owing to his considering Sparus auratus (Pennant and Donovan) to be
this species but which really is Pagellus centrodontus, he appears to have added to
his otherwise correct description, " a black spot at the origin of the lateral-line."
Edward (Life, p. 419) records two from Banffshire, one brought on shore at
Portsoy in 1839 : the other captured off Buckie in 1841.

That the gilt-head is very rare on our shores is evident. It was first
alluded to by Colonel Montagu, who in 1802 examined two examples from Torcross,
while another 15 inches long is mentioned by Yarrell as having been obtained in
the London fish-market, and one 8 inches long from the mouth of the Tweed.
July 23rd, 1846, Mr. Cocks purchased one in the Falmouth market, and a few
days subsequently a second. March 1st, 1870, Mr. Cornish (Zoologist, 1870,
p. 2108) recorded one 18^ inches in length from Penzance, where it had been
taken in a grey mullet net, in shallow water off a sandy beach.

Ireland. Considerable doubts exist respecting the visits of this fish to

3

34 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

the Irish coast. Rutty (Nat. Hist. Dublin, i, 368) observes " Aurata Sahiani.
The gilt-head or gilt-poll here called the Sea Bream, which is very frequent about
the rocks of Du?ileary." The fish here mentioned was probably a Pagellus.
Thompson (Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 91) considers that Templeton's Sparus
auratus referred to (Ann. Nat. Hist. (2) i, p. 409) as "often taken during
the summer and autumnal months, principally when currents sweep along
the rocky shore," must be Pagellus centrodontus, doubting the existence of
this fish in Ireland.

For the example figured (life-size) I am indebted to Professor Hubrecht of
Leyden. The fish grows in British waters to at least 18^ inches in length, but
becomes larger in the Mediterranean.

SPAR1M2. 35

Genus XI Pagellus, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice present. Operates unarmed. The teeth in
the anterior part of either jaw cardlilce without canines, the outer series being some-
what enlarged ; posteriorly two or more rows of rounded molars in either jaw. The
spines of the dorsal Jin (11 to 13) are receivable into a basal groove : three anal spines.
Scales of moderate size, some present on the cheeks. Air-bladder simple. Pyloric
appendages few.

The molar teeth in the genus Pagellus are much smaller than what arc seen
in those which belong to Pagrus, C. V., including Ghrysophrys, C. V.

Geographical distribution. From the seas of Scandinavia, along the British
shores to the Canaries, the Cape of Good Hope, as well as the Atlantic coast of
Tropical America. Also throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea.

These fishes are commonly known as sea-breams. One form termed silver eyes
is said to pursue small fishes in Cardigan Bay, and Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey,
informs me that sea-breams frequently come in shoals at night-time to feed on the
pilchards entangled in the fishermen's nets, and which they often rapidly clear :
this seems to be most common on moonlight nights, as at other times they are
ground feeders.

In Cornwall when two-thirds grown they are known as grobman, if younger
as chads. Mr. Dunn has observed at Mevagissey that "sea-breams" leave the
coast in November when they have no spawn, returning in April, whereas at
Land's End they arrive in March : on their arrival they seem to have concluded
spawning. The chads appear the first week in July.

In considering the number of species recorded from the seas of Great Britain,

1 observe that Yarrell (Ed. 3) mentions three, irrespective of his braize or
becker, which is in reality a Pagellus. Couch also has the becker, three Pagelli,
and one variety. The number of species from these shores which I have obtained
or examined and figured is five, one being that of a skin existing in the British
Museum from Parnell's Frith of Forth collection as P. acarne, other examples
of which from Yarrell's collection have also been seen.

Couch mentions a tale of the common sea-bream showing how superstitious
the fishermen of Cornwall were at the commencement of this century. An old
woman whose appearance and language were similar to what those of witches
were supposed to be, came to a seine boat and requested the gift of a few pilchards,
but received a curt refusal. With expressions of anger and wishes for their ill-
luck she left the beach. When the fishermen returned to their nets for the purpose
of obtaining the remainder of their capture they found only chads instead of
pilchards and likewise a drowned toad, the last being considered as unmistakably
a proof of the witch's power, which was further shown by transforming their
pilchards into worthless chads. One of the fishermen took the toad to the
supposed witch's house into which he flung it, uttering exclamations the reverse
of friendly to the agent of the evil one. The war with France was then going on,
and among the prisoners captured was this very fisherman who in attempting
to escape fell before the bullets of his guard, he being the only one who was
shot.

The following is a synopsis of the British sea-breams as at present
recognized :

1. Pagellus centrodontns, D. if, A. r \, L. 1. 75. Length of head 3| to 4 in
the total. Normally 2 rows of rounded molars in both jaws or 3 in the upper.
Last 2 dorsal and anal rays not scaled. A black shoulder spot at commencement
of lateral-line. 7 rows of scales across the cheeks.

2. Pagellus bogaraveo, D. Jflif, A. tt s tt, L. 1. 71. Length of head 3f to 4
in the total. 2 or 3 rows of rounded molars in upper, and 2 in lower jaw. Last

2 dorsal and anal rays not scaled. A dark axillary spot, 6 or 7 rows of scales
aci'oss the cheeks.

3. Pagellus Owenii, D. Tl Uhr, A. T %, L. 1. 68-70. Length of head 3 to 3f in
the total. 3 or 4 rows of rounded molars in the upper, and 2 or 3 in the lower

3 *

36 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

jaw. Last two dorsal and anal rays united by being invested in a common scaly
sheath, 5 rows of scales across the cheeks.

4. Pagellus acarne, D. xx-W -A-. y\,, L. 1. 70-72. Length of head 3| to 3| in
the total. Two rows of rounded molars in both jaws. Last 2 dorsal and anal rays
united by being invested in a common membrane. Five rows of scales across the
cheeks.

5. Pagellus erytlirinus, D. \%, A. -g?^-, L. 1. 56-60. Length of head 3f to 4 in
the total. Two rows of rounded molars in either jaw. Last 2 dorsal and anal
rays not scaled. Six rows of scales across the cheeks.

1. Pagellus centrodontus, Plate XIII.

Orphus, Rondel, v. c. 25, p. 157, c. fig; Aldrov. ii, c. 2, p. 158. Pagrus,
Aldrov. p. 151 ; Willughby, p. 312, t. V. i, f. 5. Lunulated gilt-head, Pennant,
Brit, Zool. (Ed. 1), iii, p. 240, pi. xlii, not descr. (Ed. 2), iii, p. 327, pi. xlvi, not
description.

Sparus orphus, Lacep. iv, p. 146.

Sparus pagrus, Bloch, t. cclxvii ; Lace'p, iii, p. 87; Bl. Schn. p. 271 ; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 98.

Sparus aurata, Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, pi. lxxxix ; Turton, 1. c. p. 97 ;
Duhamel, Peches, ii, Sect. 4, c. 2, p. 30 (not Lin.).

Sparus centrodontus, De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 345, pi. xxiii, f. 2 ; Jenyns,
Manual, p. 356 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 171.

Sparus Massiliensis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 247.

Aurata Massiliensis, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 357.

Pagrus vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 211.

Pagellus centrodontus, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 180 ; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth,
p. 46, pi. xxvii ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 107, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 123
(Ed. 3), ii, p. 149 : Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. lies. Canar. Poiss. p. 34,
pi. vii, fief. 3 ; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 50 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish.
p. 18 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 90 ; Schlegel, De Dieren v. Ned.
1862, p. 23, pi. ii, f . 4 ; Gunther, Cat. i, p. 476 ; Steind. Ich. Spain and Port.
1867, p. 61 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 18 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrews,
p. 172.

Pagellus curtus, Couch, Zool. 1843, p. 393, c. fig. and short sea-bream, Fish.
Brit. Isles, i, p. 241, pi. lvi {deformed).

Common sea-bream, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 237, pi. Iv.

B. vi, D. |f, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. T \, C. 19, L. 1. 75, L. tr. 7/16, Ccec.pyl. 4, Vert.
10/14.

Length of head 3| to 4, of caudal fin 5 to h\, height of body 3j to 3f in the
total length. Eye 3| to 3|- diameters in the length of the head, 1 diameter from
the end of the snout, and also apart. Interorbital space flattened. Preorbital
wider anteriorly than it is posteriorly, its greatest depth being scarcely equal to
half its length ; it is unnotched over the posterior end of the maxilla, Opercle
about twice as high as wide. Jaws of equal length in front ; the maxilla reaches to
beneath the front edge or even anterior third of the eye. Posterior nostril the
largest and obliquely oval. Teeth 3 or 4 irregularly placed rows of rounded
teeth of different sizes laterally and posteriorly in either jaw, none on vomer,
palatine bones or tongue. Fins dorsal spines rather strong, the 4th and 5th
the longest, from whence they decrease in length ; rays shorter than the spines,
the last two somewhat thickened but not scaled, nor adherent together : Donovan
observes that in his example there were 13 spines and 11 soft rays in the dorsal
fin, the same number being shown by the artist. Pectoral as long as the head.
Ventral not extending so far as the vent. Third anal spine somewhat longer than
the second. Caudal deeply forked. Scales finely ctenoid, 7 rows between the
eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colours orange-scarlet becoming lighter
beneath. A large black spot on the shoulder intersected by the lateral-line, but
which is absent in the young : Couch believed that it docs not appear until they
are twelve months old.

sparim:. 37

Varieties. Couch on September 2nd, 1843, obtained one of a shortened form,
13 inches long and 5| high, probably due to spinal disease with which these fish
are not infrequently affected. Yarrell also figures an adult example in which the
premaxillaiy bones were absent. Although Sparus pagrus, Bloch, is probably
intended for this fish, the eye is too small and the preorbital too deep.

Names. Common sea bream, sharp-toothed sea bream. lied gilt head: Chad
(if young, Cornwall) : Boger (Cornw. half grown).

In Ireland Murranroe and Barwin (county of Antrim) : Gunner ont he north-
west coast : carf, carp, and sea bream on the north-east : and Brazier on the
north. Brom y Mor, Welsh. Be zee-brasem, Dutch. Le Rousseau, French.

Habits. Prefers the vicinity of rocks and sea weeds, is very sensible to cold, con-
sequently in severe winters most of them retire to the deep sea beyond the reach of
fishermen, but return as the weather becomes warmer. Sometimes they congre-
gate in large numbers, frequently about the end of summer, when they have been
observed to rise to the surface and may be mistaken for pilchards. Couch records
how on one occasion 20,000 and on another 60,000 were caught in a season at one
time. Those of various sizes appear to keep together. They feed upon small fish,
Crustacea, and sea- weed. Mr. Dunn observes that in 1874 a vessel was wrecked
in Cornwall laden with wheat, the whole of which was lost in the sea. On fishing-
soon after he found the stomachs of these fish full of wheat. They were plump
and in good condition.

Means of capture. Frequently taken with the haddock in Ireland, the bait being
the lug-worm, shell-fish (mussels, &c), and herring-fry, or a slice of mackerel.

Breeding. Towards the end of the year or in the winter months, as in January
the young are about 1 inch in length, but they do not come towards land until
earlv in the summer, when, and also through autumn, they abound.

As food. Not esteemed in England as they soon become stale and tainted : but
large numbers are disposed of throughout the midland counties : they salt badly.
Hardly esteemed in Belfast. Highly prized in the county of Down.

Yarrell suggested the following mode of cooking these fish. When thoroughly
cleaned they should be wiped dry, but none of the scales removed. Then broiled,
frequently turning, and if the skin cracks flouring them to keep the outer case
entire. On the table the skin and scales turn off without difficulty, and the
muscle beneath, saturated with its own juices, will be found of good flavour.

Habitat. From the coasts of Scandinavia through the North Sea and North
Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean.

In Great Britain this fish has a range from one extremity to the other,
abounding especially along the southern and western coasts, but decreasing
in numbers as we go north. In the Frith of Forth, Parnell only recorded
(1838) two specimens, and Smith (Ann. Nat. Hist. 1852, ix, p. 154)
remarks on a single example considering it very uncommon. But Mcintosh
observes that they are not rare in St. Andrew's Bay, and Edward, that
numbers appear annually off the coast of Banffshire, more abundant in some
seasons than in others, while in the Moray Frith, Harris (Zool. ix, 1851) says
" they are common and have vastly increased during the last 3 years ;" while in
1852 their numbers again augmented when, according to Gordon, they were
termed the siller-fish (Zool. 1852, p. 3458). In the Orkneys one specimen was
obtained by Dr. Duguid in Scalpa near Kirkwall (Baikie, Zool. 1853, xi, p. 3952).

In Ireland, observes Thompson, they are common all round the coast.

The example figured was received from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, it is 15
inches in length. They are taken up to 3 or 5 lb. weight.

2. Pagellus bogaraveo, Plate XIV.

Sparus bogaraveo, Brunn. Pise. Mass. p. 49 ; Lacep. iv, pp. Ill, 112 ; Risso,
Ich. Nice, p. 249.

Bagrus bogaraveo, Risso, Eur. Merid. p. 359 ; Duhamel, Peches, Sect. 4, pi. i,f. 1.
Baqellus bogaraveo, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 196 ; Gunther, Catal. i, p. 480.
Spanish Bream, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 235, pi. liii.

38 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

B. vi, D. |f:jf, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. TT 3 T ^, C. 17, L. 1. 71, L. fcr. 7/15. Coec. pyl.
5, Vert. 22.

Length of head 3f to 4, of caudal fin 5J, height of body 3^ to 3 in the total
length. Eye 3 to 3j diameters in the length of the head, of a diameter from
the end of the snout, and about 1 diameter apart, Preorbital much narrower
posteriorly than it is anteriorly, its greatest height being rather less than half its
length : it is without any notch. Snout obtuse. Posterior nostril oval and
placed obliqiiely. Jaws even in front : the maxilla extends posteriorly to beneath
the front fourth of the eye. Teeth fine, the anterior ones in the oiiter row in
the upper jaw rather larger than the others : posteriorly 2 or 3 rows of rounded
molars in the upper and 2 in the lower jaw. Fins dorsal spines of moderate
strength, increasing in length to the 4th or 5th, then decreasing to the last : one
example had 13 spines and 11 rays. Pectoral reaches to opposite the first third of
the anal fin. Caudal forked. Scales 6 or 7 rows between the eye and the angle of
the preopercle. Ccecal appendages five. Colows pinkish, with a dark base to the
pectoral fin, and a dark spot in the axilla. During life numerous small blue spots
are seen over the body, most distinct above and below the lateral-line along which
about 52 were present in the example which is figured.

Name. Couch first employs the name Spanish bream in Mag. Nat. Hist, v,
1832, for Pagellus erythrinus, subsequently to this fish.

Habitat. British coast to the Mediterranean. This species, Couch observes,
is the best known to Cornish fishermen of all the species of sea breams that wander
to our shores only on unusual occasions ; and with them it bears the name of
Spanish, bream, and only single examples are met with, which are usually caught
with a baited hook, in the summer and autumn.

The example figured I received from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, where it does
not appear to be rare.

Couch says this fish attains to scarcely more than two-thirds the size of the
P. centrodontus.

3. Pagellus Owenii, Plate XV.

? Red gilt-head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 242, (Ed. 2) iii, p. 329.

Pagellus acarne, Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 24, pi. xxvii, and Mem. Wern.
Society, vii, p. 204, pi. xxvii (not C. V.) ; Yarrell Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2) i, p. 122*
(Ed. 3) ii, p. 147 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 19.

Pagellus erythrinus, Yarrell (Ed. 1) i, p. 104, desc. and vignettes, exclude
figure: (Ed. 2) i, p. 120, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 144 (not fig. or synon.)

Pagellus Oivenii, Giinther, Catal. i, p. 478.

B. vi, D. T ^, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. t V, C. 21, L. 1. 68-70, L. tr. 6/13.

Length of head 3| to 3|, of caudal fin 6, height of body 3 in the total length.
Eye diameter 4| in the length of the head, 1^ diameters from the end of the
snout, and about the same apart. Interorbital space convex. The anterior
profile from the front edge of the dorsal fin to the snout forms a steep and almost
semi-circular curve. Preorbital high, its highest portion equalling the diameter
of the orbit, it is one-half longer than wide, being narrowest posteriorly, while its
lower edge is not notched. Opercle rather more than twice as high as wide.
Jaws of equal length in front : posteriorly the maxilla reaches nearly or quite to
beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth anteriorly villiform with the outer row
somewhat enlarged : the lateral rounded teeth are sometimes irregular, more
especially in the upper jaw, where there are posteriorly 3 or even 4 rows, and 2 or
3 in the mandibles. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength increasing in
length to the fourth, the height of which is about 2| in the length of the head ;
they decrease from the 5th : rays of about equal height to that of the last spine, the
last two being invested together in a scaly sheath. Pectoral 2/3 as long as the head.
Ventral 3/4 as long as the pectoral. Anal with the third spine the longest, and
its last 2 rays similar to those of the soft dorsal. Caudal deeply forked. Scales
5 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colours back carmine,

SPARTD^E. 39

becoming of a rose-red on the sides and nearly silvery- white beneath. Fins rose-
colour, paler than the body. Parnell states it to have a dark violet spot at the
base of the upper part of the pectoral fin, which is not visible in his specimen from
which I took my figure. Yarrell observes that this mark is most conspicuous in
the larger and older specimens.

Yarrell appears to have rather confused these species, doubtless from the
difficulty in those days of obtaining examples for comparison ; and though he
figures Pagellus erythrinus, from Cuv. and Val.'s work, his description of the species
was drawn up from British specimens subsequently received, and they pertained
to this form as seen in his vignette of the teething, where the molars in the upper
jaw are given in 3 regular rows, whereas when 3 rows exist in P. erythrinus they
are irregular ; also the the last two dorsal and anal rays being enveloped in a
scaled covering certainly cannot refer to P. erythrinus. He subsequently figured
and again described this fish as P. acartie. Four of his specimens are in the
British Museum. Couch likewise give P. acarne, which, however, refers to
P. bogaraveo, and he does not describe the P. Oivenii at all.

This appears to be the fish described by Pennant, who omits all allusion to it
possessing a black shoulder spot, as seen in Pagellus centrodontus, and expressly
notices the existence of a ferruginous spot at the base of the pectoral fin. He
also states that " what is peculiar to his species is that the skin at the end of the
dorsal and anal fins is gathered up and hides the last rays," which appearance
does not exist in P. centrodontus, with which Pennant's fish has been classed, but
does in the rarer British forms of P. Owenii and P. acarne. Couch's Spanish bream
would appear to be P. bogaraveo and not P. acarne, with which he has identified
it, if we are to judge by his figure of the length and size of the head and the form
of the preorbital bone.

In Cuv. and Val. a Pagellus breviceps, vi, p. 199, is briefly described from the
Mediterranean, with an obtuse snout and the profile of the back more rounded
than in the other forms : it may be this species.

Names. Axillary bream.

Habits. This fish does not appear to have met with much attention, having
probably been mixed up with other better known forms of Pagellus : the only
examples I have seen have been those in the National Collection.

Parnell observes that his description is taken from a specimen captured in the
Frith of Forth in a salmon-net near Musselburgh in the early part of July. A
second example was taken a few days subsequently.

Habitat. As far as has been recorded this species has merely been captured
off the British coast, in the Frith of Forth, Devonshire, and Cornwall. The
example figured was a stuffed specimen, 13^ inches in length, from Dr. Parnell 's
collection. This fish attains at least 14 inches in length.

4. Pagellus acarne, Plate XVI.

Acamane, Rondel, v, c. 20, p. 151, c. fig. ; Duhamel, Peehes, ii, Sect, iv, c. 2,
p. 32.

Sparus berda, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 252.

Pagrus acarne, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 361.

Pagellus acarne, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 191 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poiss. pi.
xxxv, f. i. ; Guichen. Ex. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 51 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 480 ;
Steind. Ich. Spanien und Port. 1867, p. 60.

B. vi, D. ^Jhr, P- 17, V. 1/5, A. T \, C. 17, L. 1. 70-72, L. tr. 5/13, Vert. 22.

Length of head 3} to 3f, of caudal fin 5-f, height of body 3| in the total length.
Eye 4 diameters in the length of the head, 1^ diameters from the end of the
snout and nearly 1 apart. Preorbital narrowest posterior]}^ destitute of any notch,
while its greatest height equals 1^ in its length. Opercle rather more than twice
as high as wide. Jaws of equal length anteriorly, the maxilla reaches posteriorly
to nearly beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth anteriorly villiform, with the
outer row somewhat enlarged, the lateral rounded teeth form two rows in either

40 ACANTHOPTERYG11.

jaw. Fins dorsal spines rather strong, the third somewhat the longest : rays not
so high as the highest spines, the last two enveloped in a common scaled membrane.
Pectoral reaches to above the third anal spine. Third anal spine the longest : the
last two rays of the fin similar to those of the soft dorsal. Candal forked. Scales
5 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colours red with
golden reflections ; a dark spot in the axilla.

Habits. This is likewise one of the forms which visit Britain, of which bnt
ittle is known.

Habitat. Southern coasts of great Britain to the Canary Islands and also the
Mediterranean .

The British Museum possesses a small specimen in a good state of preservation,
from Leach's Collection. It was obtained according to the label from Headslow,
Cornwall. The example figured is 13|- inches in length and in the British Museum,
it was brought from Lanzarote by the Rev. R. T. Lowe.

5. Pagellus erythrinus, Plate XVII.

Erythrinus, Belon. p. 185 ; Rondel, v, c. 16, p. 144, c. fig ; Salv. f. 239 5
Aldrov. ii, c. 9, p. 154 ; Gesner, p. 365, and ed. 1598, f. 25, c. fig ; Jonston, lib. i,
t. iii, c. i, art. 4, p. 67, t. xviii, f. 6 ; Willugh. c. 10, p. 311, t. V. f. 6 ; Ray p. 132.
Sparus, No. 3, Artedi, Genera. 36 Syn. 59. Gyncedus, Gronov. Zooph. p. 61,
No. 215.

Sparus erythrinus Linn. Syst. i, p. 469 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1272 ; Bloch, pi.
cclxxiv; Bl. Schn. p. 275 ; Shaw, Nat. Misc. xx, pi. 834 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 240;
Martens, Reise nach Yenedig. ii, p. 425 ; Duhamel, Peches, iv, c. 2. p. 29 ; Couch,
Mag. Nat. Hist. v. 1832, p. 17, f. 3; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 355.

Sparus pagellus, Lacep. iii, p. 86.

Pagrus erythrinus, Risso, Eur. Me rid. iii, p. 361.

Pagellus erythrinus, Cuv. and Yal. vi, p. 170, pi. cl ; Yarrell, Brit. Eish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 104, c. fig. exc. description and vignette of teeth, (Ed. 2) i, p. 120, (Ed. 3)
ii, p. 144 ; Nordm. in Demid. Yoy. Russ. Merid. p. 388 ; Guichen. Exp. sc. Alger.
Poissons, p. 50 ; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 43, pi. xxvii ; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish, p. 18 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 9(3 ; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 473 ;
Steind. Ich. Span. Port. 1867, p. 58.

Pagellus rostratus, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 177.

Sparus pagrus, or Becker, Couch, Linn. Trans, xiv, p. 79.

Pagrus vulgaris, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 102 (excl. synon. and figure),
(Ed. 2) i, p. 116 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 138 ; Jenyns, Brit. Yert. p. 354; White, Catal.
Brit. Fish, p. 17 (excl. synon.)

Sparus pagrus, Jenyns, Brit. Yert. p. 354 (part.)

Pagellus Ganarensis, Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. lies Canar. Poiss.
p. 35, pi. x, f. 2.

Pagellus Guntheri, Capello, Journ. Math. Phys. Nat. Lisbon, iii, p. 253, pi. iv,
f. 3 (var. with 3 rows of molars in Cat. Fish. B. Mus. i, p. 474).

Erythrimis, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles i, p. 233, pi. liii.

B. vi, D. Af,P. 15. V. 1/5. A. g 3 , C. 17. L.l. 56-60, L.tr. \'{, Ccec. pylori 4,
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 3f to 4, of caudal fin 4-- to 5, height of body 3^- to 3| in the
total length. Eye 3f to 4i diameters in the length of the head, from 1-*- to 2
diameters from the end of the snout, and the same apart. Interorbital space
convex. Profile from shoulder to snout oblique, and the head somewhat compressed.
Preorbital high, its height being 2/3 to 3/5 of its length : its lower edge scarcely
emarginate. Jaws even in front : the maxilla reaches to almost beneath the front
edge of the orbit. Teeth anteriorly cardiform, with two rows of molars posteriorly
in either jaw, but it is by no means rare to find 3 irregular rows of molars in the
upper jaw, especially in large examples, but no other discernible differences : none
on vomer, palatine bones or tongue. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength, the
third somewhat longest from whence they decrease : rays shorter than the

SPARINE. 41

spines, the last two not enlarged or scaled, but in some instances their bases approxi-
mate. Pectoral as long or even longer than the head, Ventral reaching the vent.
Second and third anal spines of abont the same length and strength. Caudal
deeply forked. Scales 6 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle.
Ccecal appendages four, of which one is much larger than the remaining three.
Colours of an orange-scarlet having purple and silvery reflections, becoming light
underneath : fins coloured as is the body : ventrals colourless, anal with a tinge of
grey. In a large example, just captured, I observed blue spots over the body, like-
wise in some chads of this species, which abounded at Mevagissey when I was
there in August, 1880, the usual length of which were about 8 inches.

Varieties. I conclude Couch's Becker may be a deformed or mutilated
example of this fish.

Names. Pandora, king of the breams. Le Pagel commun, French.

Habits. It is a migratory species, by no means uncommon, and most usually
found during the summer and autumn, leaving as the cold weather sets in. Its
habits seem to be somewhat solitary, and it is mostly taken at a depth of several
fathoms. Off Nice it appears to be found throughout the year.

Baits. Mussels are the favourite bait, but small fishes, crustacean animals
and even sea vegetables are readily eaten.

As food. Not esteemed in Britain.

Habitat. This fish extends from the British shores to the Mediterranean
wher/e it abounds, and is found even in the Black Sea. Also in the Atlantic Ocean
to the Canaries, while it has been imported from the Cape.

It is common in the British seas, on the south and west coasts of England, but
becomes more rare to the north and in Scotland The Spanish bream recorded
from Norfolk by Gurney as having been taken November 13th, 1846 (Zoologist,
p. 1555), would appear from the description to be this species.

In Ireland Andrews has recorded it from the S.W. coast.

* Holacanthus tricolok, Bloch. At the Zoological Society, January 20th, 1880, Dr. Giinther
exhibited a drawing of this tropical fish, " obtained on the coast of the Island of Lewes, and
communicated to him by the lieverend George Gordon, who examined the specimen whilst in a
fresh state. Dr. Giinther stated that this was the first instance of this fish having reached the
British coast." (P. Z. S. 1880, p. 23). This fish "was brought from Stornoway to Lossiemouth,
it had been carried to Stornoway by the master of a small ship that had come from Glasgow, and
the fish had not been caught at Stornoway by a herring-net or otherwise." (P. Z. S. 1880, p. 356).
How it reached Lossiemouth in Morayshire in a fresh state is not recorded.

42 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family IV SCORPjENIDjE.

Sclerogenidm, pt. Owen.

Branchiostegals five to seven : pseudobranchise present. Body oblong-, com-
pressed, or subcylindrical. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth lateral. Some of the
bones of the head armed : suborbital ring 1 articulated with the preopercle.
Teeth in villiform bands. A single dorsal fin in two distinct portions : the anal
usually similar to the soft dorsal : ventrals thoracic. Body scaled or scaleless.
Air-bladder generally present. Pyloric appendages, when present, few or in
moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution, Almost cosmopolitan.

Genus I. Sebastes, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Pseudosebastes, Sauvage.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiai present. Head and. body somewhat com-
pressed. No groove on the occiput, but usually a few small spnnes : preopercle armed.
Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer and mostly on the palatine bones. Fins not
elongated : a single dorsal having the spinotts more or less separated from the soft by
a notch : spines 12 to 14: anal not elongated having 3 spines; no free rays to the
pectoral fin. Articulated fin-rays, excepting the lower ones of the pectoral, branched.
No pectoral appendages. Scales present and of moderate or small size, extending as
far forwards as the orbit or even beyond: no shinny appendages. Air-bladder
generally present. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution. Marine fishes, extending from the Arctic regions
throughout most seas, but rare or absent from the tropical portions of the Atlantic
Ocean.

Sebastes Norwegicus, Plate XVIII.

Perca marina, pt. Linn. Syst. i, p. 483 ; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 258,
pi. xlviii, (Ed. 2) iii, p. 349, pi. lix.

Gyprinus pelagicus, Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 320.

Karfe, Olafsen, Island, i, p. 191, ii, p. 208, t. xxix.

Perca Norwegica, Ascan. Icon, ii, t. xvi ; Mull. Zool. Dan. p. 46; Fabric. Faun.
Groenl. p. 167. "

Ilolocentrus Norwegicus, Lacep. iv, p. 390.

Holocentrus sanguineus, Faber, Fische Islands, p. 126.

Serranus Norwegicus, Flem. Brit. An. p. 212 ; Johns. Fish, of Berwickshire,
Mag. Nat. Hist. 1833, vi, p. 15.

Sebastes Norwegicus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 327, pi. Ixxxvii ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish.
(Ed. 1) i, p. 73, c. fig., (Ed. 2) i, p. 87, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 72 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 347;
Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fish. p. 52 ; Storer, Rep. Mass. p. 26 ; Dekay, New
York Fauna, p. 60, pi. iv, f. 2 ; Kroyer, Damn. Fish. Nat. Tids. 1844-45, i,
p. 270; Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 82; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 95; Malm.
CRfv. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1865, p. 508 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 19 ; Liitken,
Vid. Medd. 1876. p. 358.

Sebastes marinus, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 8.

Scorpama Norwegica, Richardson, Faun. Bor. Amer. p. 52 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert,
p. 347; Johns. Berw. Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 170.

? Sebastes viviparus, Kroyer, Nat. Tyds. 1844-45, i, p. 275 ; Gaim. Voy. Scand.
Zool. Poiss. pi. vi; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 96; Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4)
1868, i, p. 312.

Sebastes septentrionalis, Gaim. Voy. Isl. and Groenl. Poiss. pi. ix.

Bergylt, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 3, pi. lviii.

B. vii, D. f|, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. - s -2 y -, C. 13, L. I. ca. 75, Coac. pyl. 9, Vert. 12/19.

SCORP^NLLLE. 43

Length of head 3 to 3|, of caudal fin 5f, height of body 3} to 3f in the total
length. Eye situated high up in the head, diameter 3^ in the length of the
head, 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 1 apart. Interorbital space flat.
A supraorbital spine. Five spines along the posterior and lower edges of the
preoperele : two well developed opercular spines, one also at its lower angle and one
at the shoulder. The maxilla reaches at least to beneath the middle of the eye.
Lower jaw very prominent. Teeth villiform ones on jaws, vomer, palatine bones
but not on the tongue. Fins dorsal spines strong and sharp, increasing in
length to the 4th or 5th, but they are not so high as the rays, which are branched.
Pectoral nearly as long as the head, its lower lU or 11 rays simple and unbranched.
Second anal spine the strongest, but the 3rd a little the longest. Caudal slightly
emarginate. Scales ctenoid and in irregular rows : there are about 15 between
the lateral-line and the base of the first dorsal soft ray over the commencement
of which fin so rue fine ones are continued. On the head they cover the cheeks
and even the jaws. Air-bladder oval, simple, and destitute of any appendages,
occupying nearly the superior 2/3 of the abdominal cavity. Colours vermilion
or carmine-red, becoming lightest beneath : fins likewise red.

Collett, I.e. considers Sebastes vivijparus, Kroyer, which has a large dark
opercular spot, and is spotted with or entirely brown, as identical with this species.
Lutken (Yid. Med. 1876, p. 358), after examining 20 of each variety, believes
them, to be distinct, S. viviparus being more littoral and less arctic in its range
than S. Norivegicus. Gray, I.e. remarks on an example taken off Jutland.

I have already referred (p. 7) to this fish being the Perch, the head of which
used to be shown in a church in Lapland, and has been erroneously considered as
belonging to a gigantic Perca fluviatilis.

Names. Norivay haddock and Norwegian carp, which have reference to the
locality where it abounds : Bergylt.

Habits. Active, voracious, and apparently of a pugnacious disposition, it is
said to feed on custacea and small flat fishes. As it is usually captured at
profound depths, it is believed to usually reside there, especially in rocky bays,
where the distance to the bottom is very great.

Means of capture. Long lines baited as for cod or ling.

Breeding. The young are said to be first observed about June, and it has been
asserted that they come forth alive, and accompany their parent for a con-
siderable time.

Diseases. Nilsson observes that not uncommonly large numbers are found
floating dying or dead on the sea, with their eyes protruding and their stomachs
thrust out from their mouths. This is ascribed to some sudden whirlpool or
other marine disturbance, having suddenly carried them into a higher stratum of
water, when due to the superincumbent weight being removed, their air-bladder
has expanded and occasioned the foregoing phenomena.

Uses. In times, now probably gone by, the Greenlanders used the spines from
the fins of this fish as needles.

As food. Pennant says it was held in some esteem at the table : and Fabricius
that, although lean, it is of an agreeable taste, and eaten either cooked fresh or
after having been dried.

Habitat. This fish is an inhabitant of the Northern Ocean. In Greenland it
is stated not to be common (Saxby, Zool. 1871, p. 2553), occurring on the south-
west coast of Spitzbergen (Malmgren, CEfv. Sven. Vet. Ak. Forh. 1865, p. 508),
Avhile in the Faroe Islands it is said to be frequently captured by the cod-fishers,
and is termed hongafisshur, and red-perch, while it is not uncommon off Norway.
It is likewise found in Greenland, where Saxby (Zool. 1871, p. 2553) states it is
not common ; it extends certainly as far south along the American coast as New
York.

Pennant first recorded this fish as British: Fleming, who had also observed
it in Zetland, remarked upon one seen by Dr. Skene on the coast of Aberdeenshire :

44 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Coucli, on the authority of Mr. McGregor, alludes to one caught near Macduff
and another on the Morayshire coast : Gordon (Zool. p. 3458) speaks of an example
8 inches long from Lossiemouth in December, 1850, which was presented to the
Elgin Museum : Edward (Life, p. 427) of a specimen taken in Banffshire in 1859.
Dr. G. Johnson observed this fish near Berwick : and Mr. Tristram (Zool. 1867,
p. 638) alludes to one about 13 inches long taken on January 27th, 1867, near
Hartlepool, Durham, just after some severe weather. Yarrell records one 7 inches
in length captured in Swansea Bay, October 26th, 1851.

Ireland. In March, 1843, one was taken on a long line set for ling off Wild-
bank, Dingle Bay, where several more have since been captured (Andrews), and
in 1850 two were secured on an 81-fathom line set for cod off Blasket Island, on
the coast of Kerry.

This fish attains to 4 feet in length.

For the example figured, and which is 13 inches in length, I am indebted to
Professor Hubrecht, of Leyden.

COTTIBvE. 45

Second Group Cotto-Scombriformes.

Dorsal fins placed close together or continuous, having fewer spines than rays :
or the spinous portion may be modified into tentacles, detached spines, or a
suctorial disk : anal similar to the soft dorsal, sometimes both fins are posteriorly
modified into finlets: ventrals, when present, jugular or thoracic, never forming
a sucker. No prominent anal papilla.

Family, V COTTIOE.

Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchiae present. Body oblong or
subcylindrical. Eyes lateral or directed upwards. Cleft of mouth lateral, some-
times extending on to the sides of the snout. Some of the bones of the head
armed : suborbital ring articulated with the preopercle. Teeth in villiform bands.
One or two dorsal fins, the spinous portion of which is less developed than the
soft portion or than the anal : ventrals thoracic. Body scaled, scaleless, or with
a few plates. Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages, when present,
few or in moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution. Cosmopolitan, and found in fresh or saline waters.

Genus I. Cottus.

Phobetor, Kroyer. Boreocottus, Porocotfus and Ceratocottus, Gill. Aspicottus,
Acanthocottus, Leiocottus, TIranidea, Tauridea, Potamocottus and Triglopsis, Girard.
Ptyonotus, Giinther. Elaphocottus, Sauvage.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchim present. Body subcylindrical anteriorly,
compressed posteriorly. Head broad, depressed and rounded in front. Angle of
preopercle with a single spine (having an antler-like process in some exotic species).
Villiform teeth in the jaws, usually (but not invariably) present on the vomer, absent
from the palatine bones. Two dorsal fins : pectorals rounded, some or all the rays
unbranched. Ventrals thoracic. Head and body covered with a soft shin. Lateral-
line present. Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.

Habits. These fishes, whether inhabiting the fresh or the salt waters, conceal
themselves under stones or among weeds. They are ground feeders, living on
small Crustacea or any animal substance, including fish-eggs. Some of the marine
forms appear to keep close to the lowest ebb of the tide. When captured they
distend their heads, causing the spines with which they are armed to protrude.
They live some time after their removal from the water. The largest variety
(G. Grmnlandicus) is reputed to attain to 6 feet in length, pursues its pvey wiih
rapidity, killing blennies, herrings, codfish, and even salmon. Dufosse, 1872,
p. oGO, has mentioned the sounds emitted by G. scorpius and G. bubalis.

Means of capture. They readily take a bait or are captured with small nets.
Marine forms are frequently taken in crab-pots. The Greenland variety is said
to be fished for in that country with long lines baited with a white bone, glass
bead, or a piece of red rag. Aristotle alludes to the occurrence of little fish in
certain rivers where they are found under stones, they are termed by some people
Gotti. Owing to their lying under stones persons catch them by striking these
stones with pieces of rock, when the fish, being stunned, fall out.

As food. Those obtained in Great Britain are considered too small to be
worth cooking, but the larger forms are of economic value in Greenland, where we
are informed the bull-heads are used for making soup, but the more artistic cooks
of France reject them for this purpose.

Varieties. The number of fin rays, the proportion which are divided at their

46 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

extremities or not so, the length of the ventral fin, situation of the lateral-line
and position of the vent, appear to be snbject to considerable variations in this
genus, even in the same locality, yet they have been accepted by some ichthyo-
logists as reasons for according specific rank, whereas others have only deemed
them to be varieties or sub-species. As in examples of this genus these variations
are not always permanent ones, I have considered them to be varieties, as only in
permanence of variation can species be admitted.

Geographical distribution. Arctic regions of Europe, Asia and America, also
North Atlantic Oceans of both hemispheres descending into temperate zones :
found both in salt and fresh waters. One or two species have been recorded from
Japan.

Cottus gobio, Plate XIX, fig. 2.
Botroc, Arist. iv, c. 8.

Chabot, Belon. p. 213. Cottus, Rondel, ii, p. 202. Cottus fluviatilis, Gesner,
f . 162 a ; Aldrov. v, c. 28, p. 613 ; Willughby, p. 137, t. H. 3^ f . 3 ; Ray, p. 76.
Gobio capitato, Jonston, De Pise. lib. iii, t. i, c. 10, Art. xi. Koppe, Gronov. Zooph.
No. 270 ; Cottus, sp. 1 , Artedi, Gen. p. 48, spec. p. 82, synon. p. 76. Cottus Icevis,
Marsigli, Danub. iv, t. xxiv, f. 2. Percis, sp. Klein, Mss. v, p. 43, No. 17. River
bullhead, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 216, pi. xxxix, (Ed. 2) iii, p. 291,
pi. xliii ; Bowdich, Brit. P. W. Fish. No. 24.

Cottus gobio, Linn. Syst. i, p. 452 ; Fabr. Fauna Groenl. p. 159 ; Gmel. Linn,
p. 1211 ; Gronov. Mus. Icli. ii, p. 14 ; Bloch, t. xxxix, f. 1, 2 ; Bl. Schn. p. 61 ;
Lacep. iii, p. 252 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, pi. lxxx ; Turton, p. 94 ; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 254, pi. xxxv ; J urine, Poiss. Lac Leman, pi. ii ; Cuv. and
Val. iv, p. 145 ; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 216 ; Ekstrom, Fiske Morko, p. 167 ;
Fries och Ekstrom, p. 34^ t. vii, f. 2 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 56 c, fig.
(Ed. 2) i, p. 71, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 48 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 343 ; Swainson, Fishes,
ii, p. 271 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 80 ; Giinther, Neckarfische, p. 17
and Catal. ii, p. 156 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 103 ; Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ.
Merid. iii, p. 376 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 6 ; Schlegel, De Dieren van
Nederl. p. 46, pi. v, f . 3 ; H. Malm, Weigm. Arch. 1864, p. 272; Blanchard,
Poiss. France, p. 161, c. fig. ; Houghton, British F. W. Fish. p. 7, c. fig.

Cottus minutus and ventralis, Cuv. and Val. iv, pp. 152, 194.

,, tricusjns, Reinh. sen. Kgl. D. Vid. Selsk. Nat. Math. Afhand. B. 5,
p. Iii, 1829-30. '

Cottus p cecil opus, Heckel, Ann. Wien. Mus. ii, 1839, t. viii, f . 1, 2 ; Nordm. in
Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 377 ; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 157.

Cottus ajfinis, Heckel, Ann. Wien. Mus. ii, p. 145, t. viii.

,, microstomus, Heckel, 1. c. ; Nord. 1. c. iii, p. 377 ; Heckel and Kner,
Susswasserf. p. 32.

Cottus ferrugineus, Heckel and Kner, 1. c. p. 34.

Millers thu7>ib, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 6, pi. lix.

Phobetor ventralis, Collet, Norges Fiske, p. 30.

B. vi, D. 6(-8) | 16-17 (18), P. 14, V. 1/4, A. 12 (-14), C. 11. Ccec. pyl. 4,
Vert. 10/23.

Length of head 4 to 4>\, of caudal fin 6\, height of body 5^- in the total
length. Eyes supero-lateral, placed just anterior to the middle of the length of
the head and 1 diameter apart. Head broad and depressed, wdiile the gill-covers
are generally found distended, showing this still more clearly after death : behind
the head the body gradually decreases in size and becomes laterally compressed.
Cleft of mouth shallow, its gape wide : the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaches to beneath the middle of the eye. Upper surface of the head covered
with a soft moveable skin, which has numerous minute elevations encircling the
opening of pores, the same being continued to over the first third of the body.
A rather strong, backwardly-directed spine exists at the angle of the preopercle
and occasionally another at its base : a strong forwardly-directed spine at the
anterior-inferior angle of the subopercle : no other spines on the head. Anterior

COTTIBvE. 47

nostril tubular: the posterior patent: no barbels. Teeth fine in the jaws and in
a horse-shoe shaped band on the vomer : none on the palatine bones or on the
tongue. Fins first dorsal spines weak and about half as high as the rays of the
second dorsal: the two fins are usually slightly connected at their bases.
Ventral rays unbranched, the fin does not normally in British examples reach the
vent. Pectoral rays unbranched. Vent situated about midway between the
snout and the base of the caudal fin. Intestines the length of the intestinal
tract almost equals that of the entire fish excluding the caudal fin. Four ccecal
appendages. Scales absent : but in some examples the skin of the upper half of
the body studded with little rough points. Lateral-line about the middle of the
depth of the body or slightly nearer the back : it consists of about 33 tubes.
Ovi-sac black. Colours greenish-yellow, lightest beneath. Banded, striped, or
irregularly spotted with black: a light band, often of a V-shape across the
occiput. Fins orange : a dark band along the middle of the first dorsal fin : the
others with dark bands of spots.

Varieties. The different varieties generally admitted to belong to this species
are divisible into :

A. Pectoral fin, with 7 or 8 branched rays. France.

B. Pectoral fin, without branched rays.

a. Ventral rays branched. Scandinavia.

b. Ventral rays simple. England, Germany, Austria.

Cottns fozcilo'pus is stated to have D. 8-9 | 16-18, A. 13-14, the lateral-line
running above the middle of the height of the body and ceasing prior to reaching
the base of the caudal : ventral fin inserted midway between the snout and the
base of the caudal fin, while it reaches the vent, I have a beautiful example,
4^ inches in length, sent me by Professor Giglioli of the Florence Museum ; it has
D. 8/17, V. 1/4, all simple: 5 upper pectoral rays branched. A. 12. Vent midway
between the snout and the base of the caudal fin : lateral-line median and just
reaching the base of the caudal fin. Ventral fin nearly reaches the vent, at any
rate as closely as is seen in the examples of G. poecilojjus in the British Museum.
In Cuv. and Val. it is stated that the French G. gobio has from 6 to 8 or even 9
dorsal spines; the second dorsal 17 to 18 rays; and the anal 13. Blanchard, 1. c.
says of the French form it sometimes has 7 or 8 dorsal spines, that the second
dorsal fin has usually 17 rays : that in some examples all the pectoral rays are
simple, in others the upper 7 or 8 are branched ; while the anal has up to 13 or 14
rays. Unless my fish from the Florence Museum is considered a new species, it
must be admitted to be a link between 0. pozcilopus and G. gobio. Irrespective of
this, Girard in his elaborate monograph on the North American Cottoids, remarks
having seen "a mutilated specimen of an English miller's-thumb, with evidently
branched pectoral rays," thus showing, not that two species exist in Britain, but
that whether the pectoral rays are branched or unbranched, may occur in fishes
from the same locality, and must be regarded as a variable and inconstant sign of
no specific value.

Respecting the situation of the vent, Richardson observed that in C. cognatus
" the anus situated precisely as in G. gobio, is rather nearer the snout than the
insertion of the caudal." One author states the vent in G. gobio to be rather
nearer the snout than to the tip of the caudal. Examining eight Gloucestershire
examples from 2 - 50 to 2 - 90 inches in length, captured the same morning, I found
their average entire lengths were 2'69 inches : and the average distance from the
snout to the vent 1*19, while the average length of the caudal fin was 043. The
vent in some was equidistant between the snout and the base of the caudal fin :
in others, between the snout and the first fourth of the caudal fin. Much the
same proportions are likewise present in the British Museum examples, whether
British, Swedish, Austrian, or from Dalmatia. In the example of G. gracilis in
the National Collection, 2 - 30 inches in length, the vent is 1T0 inches from the
snout, being very little different from what is seen in some similarly-sized
Gloucestershire specimens of G. gobio.

As to the position of the lateral-line. In Leach's example, 2 - 90 inches long,
from Devonshire, the distance from the vent to the lateral-line is 0'45 inches,

48 ACANTH0PTERYG1I.

while from it to the back is 034 inches, showing that it is placed nearer to the
back than to the inferior surface of the body. In C. pcecilopus, 3"80 inches
long, and in the British Museum, the distance from the lateral-line to the vent is
O50 inches, while from the back it is 025 inches.

The species of fresh water Gottus appear to have been very unduly multiplied,
while if every variation is to be looked upon as the type of a distinct species,
many more will have to be admitted.

Names. Miller' s-thumb, due to its fancied resemblance to that digit in a miller.
" The thumb," says Yarrell, " by a peculiar movement spreads the sample over
the fingers, and employed with tact becomes the gauge of the value of the meal
produced. Hence the saying, ' worth a miller's thumb.' " By constant use the
miller's thumb is reputed to acquire a form resembling the shape of this fish :
bull-knob or bull-jub, Derbyshire : cull, Gloucestershire and in some other
counties : cob, according to Florio (see Clupea harengus) : cod-pole, Buckingham-
shire and Berkshire : noggle-head, South Hampshire : Jwrbeau, Kent, also tom-cull
and tommy -logge. Pentamv and bawd y melinydd, Welsh. Ghabots and chaboisseaux,
French. Be rivier-donderpad, Dutch.

Habits. It usually lurks on the gravel at the bottom of clear streams or
under a stone. Here it feeds on insects and their larvte, worms, small Crustacea
and fish eggs, or conceals itself if pursued by enemies. Although it can dart for a
short distance rapidly through the water, it has no power of maintaining
swimming for any long distance, and never suspends itself in mid-water. It is a
voracious feeder, delighting on fish eggs or the young fry. It is most tenacious
of life even after removal from the water. Although it inflicts wounds with its
spines, these do not occasion the poisonous symptoms occasioned by the marine
weever, Trachinus, and that the cause of this difference is that it is a fresh-water
species cannot be sustained, as the scorpion fish, Saccobranchus fossilis, of Asia, is
always an inhabitant of fresh water.

Newman* observed upon one which he kept, that it is curious to perceive how
readily the tints change, as may be seen in an aquarium, irrespective of changes
in accordance w T ith the colour of the ground, the swallowing a worm, the effect
of a swimming adventure, and on one occasion the extrusion of ova. In short,
the fish could not have been recognized under its altered aspect.

Means of capture. Searching under stones in streams and capturing them by
small nets or by the hand ; in the latter process they are found difficult to
grasp owing to the slippery character of their skins. They will take a small
hook baited with a red worm. In Switzerland children are said to spear these
fishes in the streams as they dart from one stone to another. Cuvier considered
this fish as a good bait for an eel.

Breeding. It deposits its ova in March or April under stones or in a hole it
forms in the gravel, and from which it is difficult to drive it. Whether both
sexes protect the eggs, or if only one, which it is does so, has been subject to
discussion. Marsigli asserts that the female rests for the space of a month on
the eggs, which are comparatively large and of a pinkish colour, the whole
constituting a mass covering about \\ inches of ground, and invested by an
adherent mucus. Jonston and Willughby followed him, and stated that the
female collects the spawn into lumps on her breast, where it is covered with a
thick secretion, and here they remain until the young come forth. Fleming
affirms that it deposits its spawn in a hole in the gravel ; and Blumenbach that it
keeps watch over its nest. Newman tells us that one which he kept in an
aquarium deposited its ova on the night of Good Friday, that the mass was
nearly as large as a sparrow's egg, closely adherent, and somewhat resembling
frog's spawn.

As food. It has been asserted that this fish is good eating, and is employed
for food in Italy. In some localities its flesh becomes pink when boiled, but not
so in others.

* Zoologist, 1856, xiv., p. 5124.

COTTIDvE. 49

Owls have been observed to eat bull-heads and also to give them to their
young. In the Angler's Note Book (1880, p. 177) is an account of a dead
grebe which was found in the Isis having one of these fishes in its throat : it had
been swallowed head first, and its opercular spines had stopped its further
progress.

Pallas observes that in Russia this fish is employed as a charm against fevers.

Habitat. Fresh waters generally, streams of Europe from Greenland and
Scandinavia to Italy, and perhaps Northern Asia. In Scandinavia it is reputed
to descend into the Baltic. It is said not to be found south of the Pyrenees nor
in Greece. In America it extends from near the Arctic circle as far as North
Carolina.

In Great Britain it is common in most of our clear brooks. Although Yarrell
observes that it is found in Belfast and Londonderry, Thompson considers he was
mistaken, and that it is entirely absent from Ireland. In Sampson's Derry,
p. 337, he alludes to the existence of this fish, which is also in Brown's list.

It grows to about 5 inches or more in length; but "in Siberia it sometimes
attains," according to Donovan, " to the length of half a foot or even seven
inches." The example figured was from the Churn at Colesbourne on the
Cotswold Hills.

1. Cottus scorpius, Plate XIX, fig. 1, and XX, fig. 1.

Cottus, sp. 3. Artedi, Gen. p. 49, sp. 86 ; Gronovius, Zooph. p. 78, no. 268.
Gorystion, Klein, Mss. iv, p. 47, no. 11, t. xiii, f. 2, 3.

Cottus scorpius (pt.) Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 452 ; Bloch, t. xl ; Gmel. Linn.
p. 1210 ; Lacep. iii, p. 236 ; Bl. Sch. p. 61 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 257, pi. 36 ;
Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xxxv ; Turton, p. 95 ; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 160 ;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 216; Jenyns, Manual, p. 344; Thompson, P. Z. Soc. 1835,
p. 80, and Nat. His. Ireland, iv, p. 80 ; Ekstrom, p. 171 ; Fries och Ekstr. p. 23,
pi. v, f. 1, 2 ; Hogg, Nat. Hist. Stockton, p. 26 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. His. 1837,
(2) i, p. 409 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 60, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 75; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838, i, p. 170 ; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 23 ;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 271 ; White, Catal. p. 6 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 102 ;
Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 159 ; Malm, ffifv. Sven. Vet. Akad. Fork. 1865, p. 495 ;
Fabric. Faun. Groenl. p. 156 ; Faber, Fisc. Isl. p. 120 ; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 24 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 172 ; Liitken, Vidd. Medd. 1876, p. 370.

Cottus Grmilandicus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 185 ; Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. iii,
pp. 46, 297, pi. 95, f . 2 ; Storer, Rep. Mass. p. 16 ; Dekay, N.Y. Fauna, Fish, p. 54,
pi. iv, f. 10 ; Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 81 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 161 ; Gill,
Pro. Phil. Soc. 1872, p. 213.

Cottus porosus, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 498 ; Richardson, Fau. Bor. Amer. Fish,
p. 47.

Cottus glacialis, Richardson, 1. c.

Cottus variabilis, Ayres, Pro. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1842, p. 68, and Boston
Journal, iv, 1843, p. 259.

Acanthocottus Labradoricus and A. variabilis, Girard, Boston, J. N. Hist, vi,
1850, p. 247, pi. vii, f . 3, and p. 248.

Acanthocottus ocellatus, Storer, Boston J. N. Hist, vi, p. 253.

Acanthocottus scorpius and Qroenlandicus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) ii, pp.
54, 56, c. fig.

Father-lasher and Greenland Bull-head, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 8, 12,
pi. lx, lxii.

B. vi, D. 9-10 | 13-14 (16-17), P. 16-17, V. 2, A. 9-13 (14), C. 11, Ccec. pyl.
9-11, Vert. 12-13/22.

Length of head 2f to 31, of caudal fin h\ to 6, height of body 4i to 4, in
the total length. Eye 4 to 4| diameters in the length of the head, 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and 2/3 of a diameter apart ; the orbits being 1/3 more
distant asunder opposite their hind margins than they are opposite the _ middle of
the eyes. Head wide and depressed, covered with a soft skin, which is studded

4

50 ACANTHOPTERYGI1.

with minute elevations or fine open pores. Interorbital space concave. The
maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or last third of the orbit. A pair of small
turbinal spines, sitnated internally to the nostrils ; an obtuse one at the posterior
superior angle of the orbit ; supra-scapular with a larger and sharper spine and
another on the scapular. Preopercle with two spines on its posterior edge, the
upper of which is the longer : a small one directed forwards exists at its anterior-
inferior angle. Opercular spine well developed, also another at the angle of the
subopercle. Interopercle with a small spine. Teeth small ones in the jaws, and
on a V-shaped patch on the vomer, none on the palatines or on the tongue.
Fins spines of the first dorsal weak and flexible, the longest not quite twice the
length of the eye ; rays of the second dorsal and of the anal undivided. Pectoral
reaches to above the vent. The ventral in the young reaches the vent but not so
far in adults. Caudal cut square with its eight middle rays divided at their
extremities. Scales skin smooth, but in some individuals with several granu-
lated plates. Lateral-line smooth. Intestines vent much nearer the base of
the caudal fin in some examples, in others nearer to the snout, while all
intermediate gradations may be observed. Colours grayish superiorly, mottled
and banded with black : lower surface of a dull white dashed with yellow. The
males with white spots on the abdomen, sometimes edged with red. or yellow.
Fins yellow with oblique dark bands, bars and spots, which are often of a dull
red.

Varieties. Form the spines at the angle of the preopercle are occasionally
only 2 (instead of 3) in number, while they may differ on the two sides of the
head in the same example. Thompson obtained a female with 4 spines on one
preopercle, 3 on the other. In all my specimens from Southend the anal fin has
from 9 to 11 rays. The number of dorsal spines may be as few as 8 (Cuv. & Val.),
but I have not found less than 9 in British examples ; while the anal rays vary
from 9 to 13. That a decrease in the numbers occurs as the fish is further from
the north is very significant. Malmgren has pointed out that Scandinavian
examples have generally two more rays in the dorsal fin than those from the more
temperate west coasts of Europe. With a species however which shows so many
variations in the number of its fin rays, and with an evident tendency to
degenerate the further it is from the Arctic region, this cannot be a subject for
wonder, and as no other differences have been observed, we may fairly conclude
that the southern is merely a variety of the northern species. It has been
remarked that the inner portions of the pectoral and ventral fins are rongh
in C. Groenlandicus, but not so in C. scorpius : this however is an error, as they
are equally rough in large examples of G. scorpius. The number of coecal
appendages varies between 9 and 11. Colour Gill first drew attention to those
with white spots being males.

Names. Sting -fish : Sea Scorpion: Short-spined Cottus. Gundie, Scotch.
Sutor, in Moray Frith (Gordon, Zool. p. 3458). A correspondent in the
Angler's Note Book, p. 119, mentions that an old work in Cornwall alludes to the
poison-pate (poisson) which he thinks might be this fish (J Trachinus). Sarph
y m6r, Welsh. Le Chaboisseau de mer commun, French.

Habits. Residing along the coasts, keeping just within the influence of the
waves, or in pools left by a receding tide, concealing itself under stones or sea-
weed, from which it emerges when in pursuit of prey, or changing its locality.
It is not uncommon in bays where much fucus abound. It is very wary,
permitting the hand to approach to within a couple of inches before it quits
its post, but then darting away with great rapidity. Mcintosh observes that it
lives on small sucking fishes (Liparis, &c.) shrimps, and Terebellce, while fragments
of green Algce occur in its stomach ; in short it is very voracious, swallowing
any animal not too large. When captured it closes its gill-covers and distends its
head and branchiostegal membranes to much above their ordinary width, while at
this time according to Couch " there may be felt such a trembling at the throat,
as might suggest the opinion that it proceeds from an effort to produce some sort
of sound that would be perceived in its natural element." It lives some time after
removal from the water, especially if its skin is kept moist ; but although fresh

cottim:. 51

water is said to be fatal to its existence, such cannot always be the case. Mr.
Gurgon states (Zool. 1844, p. 121G) that in the summer of 1843 he took several,
which are locally termed " rock dolphins," with a hand-line from off the Brighton
chain-pier. One was kept half-an-hour out of water, and subsequently seven
hours in fresh water, it was then while apparently quite well transferred to sea
water and took no notice of the change. It died during the night. Adult forms
of G. Grainlandicus are found to be active and swift when pursuing their prey,
following them even to the surface, devouring blennies, herring, cod, and even
salmon, but it must be remarked that these fishes in the Arctic Ocean are said to
attain to six feet in length. Donovan observes that they will follow sharks and
other voracious fishes with the greatest temerity, lashing and wounding them with
their spines, and effectually driving them from those places where they are
accustomed to hunt themselves : to the blennies it is a desperate enemy.

Breeding. In Greenland it has been observed to deposit its eggs on the sea-
weed in December and January. Its eggs are very small, and in this country
are extruded during the spring in the sand or pools in rocks. The male is said
to make a nest of sea-weeds and pebbles for the reception of the spawn, while
he is also believed to watch over as well as to protect the young when hatched.

Baits. I found in the stomach of the one figured (natural size on plate xx)
a crab one inch across the carapace. It readily takes a bait : according to
Crantz, in Greenland it resorts to the deeper waters of the bays and is fished for
with long lines, the bait used being a white bone, glass bead, or piece of red
cloth : four hooks are used placed cross-wise. They are occasionally speared.

As food. Not used in this country, but appears to be approved of in
Greenland. The males, however, are said in Shandinaviens FisJcar to be con-
sidered poisonous, while the females are eaten by the poor.

A fisherman, annoyed at finding one of these fish among his shrimps, attempted
to bite off its head, when it struggled, escaped into his throat, became fixed in his
larynx and occasioned suffocation. (Angler's Note Book, 1880, p. 177.)

Habitat. Prom the Arctic Ocean and North Atlantic in both hemispheres,
the North Sea and the Baltic, round the British Isles. In Newfoundland G.
Grcenlandicus is abundant (Saxby, Zool. 1871, p. 2553). The British form must
be considered a degenerated variety of the Greenland bull-head.

Common round the British coast, and very numerous in the Orkneys and
Shetland Isles. The variety, G. Groenlandicus, was taken in 1858 in a salmon-net,
at Montrose (J. Richardson, Zoologist, 1860, p. 6993) : while in 1880 large
numbers of the British variety were received at the Westminster Aquarium from
Brighton, and which had the brilliant Greenland livery.

Found in Ireland all around the coast throughout the year, especially in .small
bays where much Fucus abounds. G. Groenlandicus has been taken on south-west
coast of Ireland in Dingle Harbour, in February, 1850.

In Greenland, as already observed, this fish is said to attain to 6 feet in length,
the largest recorded example in Great Britain being 15 inches.

2. Cottus bubalis, Plate XX, fig. 2.

Gottus, Artedi, Gen. p. 49, sp. p. 86 ; Gronovius, Zoo ph. no. 268 ; Sea Scorpion,
Edward, 284 ; Tonning inTrondhj, Selsk. Skr. ii, p. 345, t. xiii, xiv; The Father-
lasher, Low, Faun. Oread, p. 206.

La scorpene, Belon. p. 242. Scorpius marinus, Schonevelde, Ich. p. 67,
t. vi ; Jonston, De Pise. t. xlvii, fig. 4. Scorpcena Belonii similis, Wil. Ich. p.
138, t. H. 4, f. 3 ; Ray, Pise. p. 145.

Gottus scorpitis, pt. Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 452, and Fauna Suec. No. 323 ;
Pennant, British Zool. (Ed. 1), iii, p. 218, pi. xl (Ed. 2), iii, p. 294, pi. xliv ;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 102.

Gottus bubalis, Euphrasen, N. Schwed. Abhandl. vii, 1786, p. 64, t. iii, f. 2, 3 ;
Bloch, Schn. p. 62 ; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 165, pi. lxxviii ; Yarrell, Zool. Journ. iv,
pp. 470, 508, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 63, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 78 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 58 ;
Jenyns, B. Vert. p. 345 ; Ekstrom, Fische Morko, p. 182 ; Fries och Ekstr. p. 27,
t. vi, f. 1, 2; Thompson, Pro. Z. S. 1835, p. 80; Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 81 ;

4 *

52 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Johnston, Berwick. K F. Club, 1838, i, p. 170 ; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth,
p. 25 ; White, Catal. p. 7 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 164 ; Steind. Meeresfische Span,
und Port. p. 92 ; Collett, Norges Fish. p. 29 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 172.

Aspicottus facialis and bison, Girard, Pro. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1854, p. 130.

JBubalis, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 11, pi. lxi.

B. vi, D. 8 J 1112, P. 16, V. 1/3, A. 9, C. 10, Coec. pyl. 7-8, Vert. 12/17.

Length of head 3^, of caudal fin 5 to 5|-, height of body 3f to 4 in the
total length. Eyes diameter about 1/4 of the length of the head, being
superiorly merely separated by a narrow and furrowed interspace. Head wide
and depressed, covered with a soft skin, opening on which are many small
mucous pores. The maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or last third of the
orbit. Turbinal spines well developed. Preopercle with four spines, the superior
being the longest and exceeding the length of the diameter of the eye, the inferior
one pointing downwards and forwards : a ridge from the orbit ends in a spine at
the occiput, another at the supra-scapular and scapular. Opercle with a spine,
the base of which is granulated : two subopercular spines, the lowest pointing
downwards and forwards. A few small tentacles about the head and above the
eyes, and usually one at the end of the maxilla. Teeth moderately sized
villiform ones in the jaws and on the vomer, none on the palatines or on the
tongue. Fins the first dorsal not so high as the second, its spines rather weak :
all the rays of the second dorsal simple. Pectoral reaches the origin of the anal,
its rays undivided. Ventral not extending to the vent. Anal rays simple.
Caudal cut square, its eight central rays divided at their extremities. Shin
smooth. Lateral-line with some bony plates, most distinct in its anterior portion.
Vent rather nearer the base of the caudal fin than the snout. Colours on March
8th, 1880, I received a beautiful male specimen, 6 inches in length, from Mr. Dunn
of Mevagissey. All the dark markings were of a brilliant carmine, while it had
some large and irregularly shaped white spots along the sides and white vermi-
cnlations on the under side of the head. As a rule the fish is of a light brown,
with darker and irregular blotches and bands : likewise oblique dark bands on
the dorsal and anal fins, and vertical ones on the pectorals and caudal.

Varieties. Form. The American species has been stated to have the ridges
on the head tubercular and not covered by skin, but I find this also in some
British examples. The variety of Coitus scorpius mentioned by Couch as having
" a row of tendrils, hanging from the skin above the eyes," seems to agree with
this species. In colour we likewise find variations. A beautiful example 4<\
inches in length was captured at Southend early in April, 1879. The under
surface was brilliantly yellow, and on it were some large white marks ; while the
under surface of the pectoral fin was spotted with pure white and brown (P. 15).
Another 7 inches long was without these white spots, but it and the last-mentioned
had well developed filaments at the end of the upper maxilla.

Names. Father-lasher: Long-spined cottus. Lucky proach, Scotch.

Habits. Lurks under stones, pieces of rocks, or in similar situations, watching
for small fish and Crustacea : and Couch considered that it preferred deeper water
to that selected by C. scorpius. Mr. Gurney placed one which was 2\ inches in
length in a vessel of sea water, which contained some sand launces that were
about 3 inches long. It was observed to seize one and swallow it head first,
deglutition lasting \\ hours (Zool. p. 2954.) Low observes, " I once saw a trial of
skill between a large one of this kind and a cormorant. The latter got the head and
part of the body of the fish swallowed, but being wounded by the spines, I suppose,
attempted to bring it up again : however, this was not practicable, for these being
placed the contrary way, hindered its return, and acted the same part as the barb
of a hook, in fixing it firmer in the throat of the cormorant, which, after many
attempts and much struggling, was killed by it." The fish was 12|- inches long,
its spines were fastened in the bird's throat.

Mr. Dunn, writing of the carmine coloured example of this fish which he sent
me, observes : "it was brought to me about 9 a.m. alive in a bucket of water :
then being removed from the water it was put on a table and left there seven

cottim:. . 53

hours, subsequently it was found alive and well, recovering on being placed
in water."

Means of capture. Frequently taken in crab pots, which have been set where
sand and low rocks are intermingled.

Breeding. In December and January, the ova being large and of an orange
colour.

As food. It is common in the seas of Newfoundland, where, says Pennant,
it is called scolping ; it is also frequent in deep waters along the coasts of
Greenland and is the principal food of the natives, and soup made of it is declared
to be both wholesome and agi*eeable. Low observes that " it is reckoned delicate
eating, and those who can put up with its horrid appearance, prefer it to others,
which are more beautiful to the eye."

Habitat. From the Arctic regions in both hemispheres, the Baltic, North Sea,
British Isles, and coasts of France and Spain.

In the Orkneys it is found in every pool into which the sea flows regularly
(Low). According to Baikie it is not so common in the Orkneys and Zetland as
C. scorpius. It is found all round the British coasts. Edward observes that in
Banffshire it is abundant in pools left by the tide or beneath stones at low
water.

Ireland, G. bubalis is more common, according to Thompson, than G. scorpius ;
it has been reported from Antrim, Down, Kerry, etc.

It attains to 12 or 13 inches in length.

3. Cottus quadricornis, Plate XXI.

Cottus, Sp. 2, Artedi, Genera, p. 48 and spec. p. 84 ; Gronov. Zoophyl. p. 79,
No. 272.

Cottus quadricornis, Linn. Syst. i, p. 451 ; Pallas, Spic. Zool. viii, p. 25 ; Bloch,
t. cviii ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1208 ; Bl. Schn. p. 62 ; Bonaterre, Ency. p. 67, pi.
xxxvii, f. 146; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 259, pi. 36 ; Lacep. iii, p. 241 ; Cuv. andVal.
iv, p. 168 ; Ekstrom, Fische Morko, p. 178 ; Fries och Ekstr. p. 30, t. vii, f. 1 ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 68, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 83 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 64;
Jenyns, p. 345 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 7 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 102 ;
Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 166 and Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 293 ; Malm. Wieg. Arch.
1864, p. 275 ; Liitken, Vidd. Medd. 1876, p. 375.

Cottus hexacornis, Richards. Franklin Journal, p. 726, and Faun. Bor. Amer.
Fishes, p. 44 ; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 166.

Four-homed cottus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 15, pi. lxiii.

B. vi, D. 9/14, P. 17, V. 1/3, A. 13-15, C. 13, Ccec. pyl. 6 or 7. Vert. 40.

Length of head 3f , of caudal fin 6f , height of body 4f in the total length.
Eye 4 diameters in the length of the head, 1^ diameter from the end of the
snout and also apart. Two pairs of large and rough tubercles on the upper surface
of the head, one over the posterior superior angle of each orbit, the other on the
nape, the space enclosed by these four points being longer than wide. Three or
four preopercular spines, the superior being the longest and equalling the
diameter of the orbit. A pair of turbinal spines. The maxilla extends
posteriorly to beneath the middle of the orbit. Teeth villiform in the jaws and
vomer. Fins first dorsal low, the third or fourth spines being the longest and
less than half the height of the body below them, and only two-thirds the height of
the second dorsal. Pectoral reaches to above the vent. Ventral reaches scarcely
half-way to the anal. Caudal rounded. All the rays, except the central ones of
the caudal fin, unbranched. Scales absent, a row of rather large granular
tubercles between the lateral-line and the back, and sometimes a second of smaller
ones : below the lateral line one or two similar rows, while occassionally others
are scattered over the sides. Colours grayish-brown, tinged with red over the
gill-covers and becoming yellow on the sides and dull white beneath. Fins
gray, obliquely banded with darker.

Varieties. Liitken confirms Peters' determination that examples from the
east coast of Greenland are identical with those from the Baltic. Sir John

54 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Richardson in the third edition of Yarrell, considered his G. hexacornis a variety
of this species. Malmgren has observed that certain marine fishes as Gottus
quadricornis, Liparis barbatus and a variety of the common herring, are fonnd in
the northern portion of the Baltic where that sea is least saline, whereas they
appear to be entirely absent from its southern extremity where their presence
might be anticipated had they obtained access from the North Sea. They are
leaner and smaller in the Baltic than in the Arctic Ocean, and it is supposed that
they are the remnants of the fauna of the Glacial Ocean. During the later
portion of the glacial period most of Finland and the middle of Sweden were
submerged, and the Baltic a gulf of the Glacial Ocean, being then closed in at
the south. As the Scandinavian continent has become elevated, the Baltic has
been cut off by land from the Arctic Ocean, whereas to the south it has obtained
access into the North Sea, leaving it containing representatives of the former
marine glacial fauna, not the products of immigration through the Sound.
Thus inherited instinct induces these fish to seek a passage in the north, while,
due to the alteration in the physical condition of the water in the Baltic, they are
becoming a smaller and more miserable race than their relatives now living in the
Arctic Ocean.

Habits. Said to be active, a rapid swimmer, and eager after prey, to obtain
which it conceals itself among stones or under sea- weed, from whence it darts on
its victims. Lacepede states that it enters rivers.

Edward observes that he " never found this species but in the stomachs of
fish ; which led him to the conclusion that they generally inhabit deep water, or
at least that they do not come so near the surface as the preceding species," Gottus
bubalis.

Means of capture. Yarrell observes that it is taken on the north-east coast by
fishermen in winter when working nets with small meshes for sprats.

Breeding. In winter. The ova are white.

Habitat. This fish has been captured in latitude 82 30'^ north or within the
limits of the Arctic Ocean, it is found in the Northern Ocean as far as Greenland,
the west coast of Norway (absent, however, according to Collett), also in the
northern portion of the Baltic and in the North Sea, as far south as the British
Isles. Sir John Richardson found it very abundant at the mouth of the
Coppermine River in British North America. In Britain it is said to be
occasionally taken on the north-east coast. W. Thompson, February 7th, 1834,
obtained one alive at Weymouth, which he transmitted to the Zoological
Gardens. In Scotland, Edward observes its occurrence in Banffshire, but
only from the stomachs of other fishes.

It has not been recorded from Ireland.

The example figured is from one in the British Museum, probably the same
that has previously been employed by Yarrell and Couch. This fish attains to
12 or 13 inches in length.

COTTID^E. 55

Genus II. Trigla, Artedi.
Hoplonotus, Guichenot.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Head parallelopiped : with its
superior and lateral surfaces bony. Villiform teeth in both jaws and, usually on the
vomer, but none on the palatines. Two dorsal fins, the first being of less extent than
the second ; three free filaments at the base of the pectoral fin. Air-bladder ivell
developed, usually provided with [lateral muscles, and sometimes partially divided
internally by partitions. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

Trigla was the Greek term for the Mullets, Mullidai ; Artedi united the two
genera, and when they were again separated this name was appropriated to the
gurnards.

These fishes are commonly known as gurnards or gurnets derived from an
ancient British word signifying a firm or rugged structure, and as such applicable to
their heads. Cnudan, cnodan, or crudan, Gaelic, McAlpine. In France they have
the epithet Les Milans de tner. Many species are able to produce sounds when
beneath the water, from which has originated their Italian name organo, and
their French designation grondin. The Romans termed them lyres, either due
to their emitting sounds or else because their shapes bore a resemblance to the
ancient " lyre."

The air-bladder in the British forms are exceedingly useful as a means of
diagnosing species, as they vary exceedingly. Their structure is interesting, as
they possess strong lateral muscles for the purpose of compression, thus
diminishing their size, and assisting the fish to sink when desired. The
thickness of the walls in some species, it has been suggested, may be for the
purpose of resisting pressure when suddenly rising to the surface from great
depths. M. Dufosse considers this organ as a generator of sound completely
independent of the other organisms in the fish. If a gurnard is placed on its
back and a long incision made in the abdominal walls and any viscera which
obstruct view are drawn to one side, it is directed that the tip of the finger
shonld be placed in contact with the air bladder and vibrations synchronous with
and having the same intensity as the sound produced by the fish will be felt.
Having isolated the organ as much as possible by delicate and rapid manipulation
from the rest of the body, with the exception of the vessels and nerves with
which it is supplied, a stethoscope provided at its mouth with a diaphragm of
gold-beater's skin should be applied to its anterior part ; then the nerves are to
be severed first on one side then on the other, when the sounds will be found to
decrease in intensity and finally entirely cease. He concluded that the intrinsic
mnscles by their vibration aided and intensified by the rest of the organs are
the agents of the sounds produced ; while other muscles can by their contraction
alter the shape of the organ and thus modify the quality of the sounds emitted.

The rough granulations along the front edge of the first two dorsal spines
are liable to vary in examples of the same species, in some being present and
well developed, whereas in others they may be entirely wanting.

Habits. Gurnards are rather voracious, mostly swimming near the bottom
of the sea where they feed on Crustacea or other small prey.

Their free pectoral filaments, which have a certain similarity to elongated
fingers, are employed as feelers, used as a means of progression, or even for the
purpose of drawing prey towards their mouth. Their large pectoral fins,
although employed when balancing themselves in mid-water, are insufficient for
the purpose of sustaining them in the air. They live for some time after their
removal from the sea, and on being touched erect their dorsal spines, and at the
same time emit certain sounds from which many local names have had their origin.
These fishes, more especially T. obscura, have been reputed to emit light from the
head, occasioning, according to Lacepede, their passage through the air to
resemble the course of a shooting star. Couch observes that Risso believed this

56 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

faculty to be inherent in all the species of the Genus : Cuvier however denied
that this power was possessed by all, and it has been surmised that such may be
due to their conveying after them certain invertebrata that have luminous
properties, and which occasion what the fishermen term " briming." They are
said by some observers to swim in large companies, and when pursued by an
enemy to spring out of the water.

Means of capture. Gurnards, generally swimming near the bottom, are
commonly taken by deep sea trawlers, but some species are likewise easily
captured by hand-lines : a silvery slice from a sand launce, Ammodytes, forming
an attractive bait. Lon: lines termed " bulters" with baited hooks are used for
gurnard fishing.

Breeding. They spawn about May or June, and Professor Sars has found
their ova floating on the sea, rendering it almost certain that they may be included
among those forms which do not deposit such on the ground.

As food. Gurnards have always been held in fair estimation, but from the
firmness of their flesh they are not so digestible as many other fishes as easily
procurable : some forms, however, owing to their small size are deemed almost unfit
for the table, while others are so inferior as to be considered worthless in certain
districts. They are generally stuffed with forcemeat and subsequently baked : or
their flesh is raised from the bones and dressed in fillets. They may likewise be
gently boiled in salted water for half-an-hour, and then served up with a rich
gravy or anchovy sauce, or with parsley and butter acidulated with Chili vinegar,
lemon juice or caper pickle. A very ancient mode and still occasionally followed,
is after having fried, to souce them in a sour sauce. However, in some places
" souced gurnet" is employed as a term of contempt, as when Shakespere in King
Henry IV, Act iv, Scene 2, makes Falstaff say, " If I be not ashamed of my
soldiers, I am a soused gurnet."

Geographical distribution. Coasts of Europe, being especially abundant in the
Mediterranean. Oue species extending across the North Atlantic is found on the
western shores of North America. To the south it passes round the west coast of
Africa, and from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, apparently avoiding the east
coast of Africa, the shores of India, and the contiguous islands.

Lepidotrigla, Giinther, has been separated solely on account of the size of its
scales* which are larger a subdivision which is only partially approved of.

In Ireland the gray gurnard, T. gurnardus, is most numerous : next the
sapphirine T. hirundo : then the red T. cuculus : 4th the streaked T. lineata :
5th the Piper T. lyra (Thompson).

1. Trigla lineata, Plate XXII.

Mullus imberbis, Rondel, x, c. 5, p. 295, c. fig. ; Gesner, iv, p. 567 ; Aldrov. ii,

e. 2, p. 131. Milvus, Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, t. iii, c. 1. art. ii, p. 65, t. xvii,

f . 12, &c. Mullus imberbis, 1. c. p. 61, t. xviii, f. 4 ; Willughby, p. 278, t. S. i, f . 1 ;
Ray, Syn. p. 87. Cuculus lineatus, Ray, Syn. p. 165, f. 11; Briinn. Pise. Mass.
p. 99. Streaked gurnard, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 281, pi. lvii, (Ed. 2)
iii, p. 377, pi. lxvi.

Trigla lineata, Gmel. Linn. p. 1345 ; Bloch, t. cccliv ; Bl. Schn. p. 13
Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. iv ; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 102 ; Cuv. and Val. iv
p. 34 ; Bonap. Ital. Pesci. iii, p. 58, c. fig ; Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist, vi, 1833
p. 530 ; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 79, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 72
Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 46, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 45, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 19
Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 339 ; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 15, t. xix ; Swainson
Fish, ii, p. 262 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 38 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 215
Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 77 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 200 ; Steind. Ich. Span,
u. Port. 1867, p. 78 ; Cornish, Zool. 1878, p. 423.

Trigla lastoviza, Briin. Pise. Mass. p. 99; Lacep. Poiss. iii, p. 349, 351.

Trigla Adriatica, Gmel. Linn. p. 1346 ; Bl. Schn. p. 15 ; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 204, and Hist. Nat. iii, p. 394 ; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 430, t. xi ;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 215.

* Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 166.

cottim:. 57

Trigla pceciloptera, Thompson, P. Z. S. 1837, p. 61 (not Cuv. and Val.)
Streaked gurnard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 25, pi. lxvii.

B. vii, D. 9-11 | 16-17, P. 10-11 + iii, V. 1/5, A. 16, C. 12, L. 1. 66, Ccec. pyl. 10,
Vert. 15/20.

Length of head 4| to 4|, of caudal fin 5 to 6, height of body 5 to 5 in the
total length. Eye high up, almost touching dorsal profile, 1\ to If diameters in
the postorbital portion of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout, and
3/4 to 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space deeply concave : upper profile from
eye to snout descends abruptly, in the adult almost vertically. Bones of the
head with stellated ridges. Two or three distinct spines at the anterior-superior
angle of the orbit, being the termination of ridges. Preorbital obtuse anteriorly,
and granulated, most coarsely so in adults, when it may even be denticulated.
Angle of preopercle usually with blunt, but sometimes with, sharp projections :
supra-scapular roughened along its upper edge and terminating posteriorly in a
sharp spine : scapular strongly ridged, likewise terminating in a strong spine.
The posterior extremity of the maxilla does not extend to beneath the anterior
edge of the eye. Teeth fine in jaws, present or absent on vomer : palatines and
tongue edentulous. Fins second dorsal spine the longest, being equal to the
distance between the hind edge of the eye and the end of the snout, its first and
sometimes also its second (or even third) spine roughened anteriorly : rays of
second dorsal divided at their outer extremities. Pectoral longer than the head,
and reaching to above the 3rd to the 7th ray of the anal fin. Anal rays undivided.
Ventral reaches the vent. Caudal emarginate. Scales small. Lateral-line
with about 66 denticulated and serrated spines, equal to half the number of
rows of scales above the lateral-line : the keeled row along the bases of the dorsal
fins well developed, and consisting of about 25 scales. Running from the
back down the sides are numerous raised lines or ridges which give it its
characteristic appearance. Ocecal appendages ten, those nearest the pylorus long
and nearly twice the length of the outermost. Air-bladder oval, rounded at both
extremities with a large muscle, composed of transverse fibres going along its
lateral borders. Colours of a lake superiorly and on the sides, becoming white
underneath. Narrow red vertical bands pass from the back down the sides.
Dorsal and caudal fins reddish-brown, edged externally with red, and covered with
numerous irregular spots and blotches. Pectoral of similar but darker colours,
the spots almost forming transverse bands. Ventrals reddish-brown internally,
with lighter red edges. Anal grayish-yellow, with a pink outer margin which
has a dark base.

Names. Streaked gurnard: lineated gurnard : French gurnard : rock gurnard:
rabbit fish. Penhaiarn rhestrog, Welsh. Le Bouget Camard, French.

Habits. Although this fish usually keeps near the bottom, it is sometimes
captured in nets which do not descend nearly so low, while it has been occasionally
observed springing out of the sea. It appears to restrict itself to certain localities
probably due to the food which may be present. Its migrations are effected,
according to Couch, at higher elevations than among the other forms of the genus :
he obtained one from a net that floated over 30 fathoms. Once at Polperro, not
its usual resort, a fish was observed springing out of the water in an unusual
manner, and on being captured proved to be a streaked gurnard. It eats
Crustacea and small fish, while pebbles and vegetable substances have been found
in its stomach. Thompson detected in one what had "the appearance of
vegetable food and a young sole about 3 inches in length, crab-like Crustacea,
15 full-grown specimens of shrimp-like Crustacea and 3 small brachyurous
Crustacea" as well as other crabs.

Means of capture. Is generally taken in trammels set for surmullets, or with
the trawl, and but rarely (Mr. Cornish, 1. c. says never) by means of baits. In
the aquarium it takes pieces of mussel or shrimps, as well as any other of the
genus, and becomes equally tame, therefore one would imagine that it must
sometimes be caught by baits.

Breeding. Eggs small and numerous.

58 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

As food. It is said to equal Trigla pint.

Habitat. From the British coast to the Canary Islands, also through the
Mediterranean and Adriatic.

In Britain it appears to have been first observed by Mr. Jago in Cornwall, and
is most numerous along the south coast, becoming rarer towards the north,
only stragglers having been observed in Scotland, one having been procured
near Ayr, and a second in October, 1844, at Glasgow : while on the west coast of
England it is said to be locally rare. Mr. Cornish remarked in May, 1866, that
he had taken two examples at Penzance, being 29 since 1858 (Zoologist, 1866,
p. 311).

In Ireland, Thompson remarks that a few are taken every year in the county
of Down, chiefly at Killough, and one by Ball at Toughal : the most usual time
being the last six and first three months in the year.

It attains to at least 14 inches in length.

2. Trigla cuculus, Plate XXIII.

Lyra, Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, tit. iii, c. 1, art. 3, pp. 66, t. xxiv, f. 4. Trigla,
Artedi, Gen. 45, syn. 74. Cuculus Aldrovandus, Ray, p. 89 ; Rutty, N. H. Co.
Dublin, 1772, p. 367. Bed gurnard, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 278,
pi. 57, (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 373, pi. 66.

Trigla cuculus, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 497 and Mus. Ad. Fried, ii, p. 93 ; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 620, pi. 90 ; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 26 ; Dekay, N. Y. Fauna, p. 43, pi. lxx,
f . 225 ; Bonap. Icones Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 58, c. fig ; Fleming, p. 215 ; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 34, c. fig, (Ed. 2) i, p. 38, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 10 ; Parnell, Fishes
Frith of Forth, p. 14, t. xviii ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 262 ; White, Cat. Brit.
Fish. p. 2 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 78 ; Malm, CEfv. Sv. Akad. 1870,
p. 825 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 37.

Trigla pini, Bloch, t. ccclv; Bl. Schn. p. 14; Lacep. iii, p. 356; Risso, Ich.
Nice, p. 206 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 338 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i,
p. 170 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 71 ; Swainson, ii, p. 262 ; Gtinther,
Catal. ii, p. 199 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 172.

Trigla lineata, Montague, Wern. Mem. ii, p. 460 (not Gmel. Linn.) ; Flem.
Brit. An. 215.

Polynemus tridigitatus, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i,
p. 449.

Pine-leaved gurnard, Shaw, Nat. Misc. xxii, pi. 954.

Ellech, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, ii, p. 19, pi. lxiv.

B. vii, D. 8-9/18, P. 10-f-iii, V. 1/5, A. 16-17, C. 13, L. 1. 73-76, Ccec. pyl. 8,
Vert. 15/21-22.

Length of head 4 to 4|, of caudal fin 5\, height of body 6 in the total length.
Eye If diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, If diameters from end of
snout, and \ a diameter apart. Interorbital space concave. Upper profile from
eye to snout descends rather abruptly and is slightly concave. The form of the
snout appears to be liable to vary, in one male example it is broader and more
strongly armed than in any other of my specimens. Bones of the head with
stellated ridges. Two or three small spines at the anterior-superior angle of the
orbit. Preorbital with short denticulations anteriorly. Opercle with a well-
developed spine. Angle of preopercle with a spinate termination below which are
two smaller ones. Supra- scapular roughened along its upper edge and
ending in a short but sharp spine : coracoid likewise ending in a spine. The
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front of the eye.
Teeth fine ones present in jaws, and on the vomer, none on the palatine
bones or tongue. Fins second dorsal spine the highest, being more than
2/3 the length of the head, the first spine is tuberculated anteriorly. Pectoral
about as long as the head and reaching to above the third or fourth anal ray.
Caudal emarginate. Scales small, those on the lateral-line unarmed, but forming
lineated plates, very much deeper than wide, occasioning the lateral-line to appear
as if crossed by about 72 vertical folds of skin. Ridge along the base of the
dorsal fin having about 27 spines. Air-bladder with two short and rounded

COTTIMJ. 59

prolongations anteriorly and a muscle along either side. Colours rosy. Irides
golden orange.

Varieties. Thompson refers to having obtained one in March, 1838, " D. 8/18,
A. 16. The hinder half of this specimen was grayish, like T. hirundo (of which
a small one was taken with it), the anterior half, including the head, a mixture of
gray and scarlet. It was a female, the ova half the size of small clover seed."
Couch records a variety of unusual size, having the back, head, and sides covered
thickly with golden spots about the size of a large pea.

Names. The specific term given to this species by Bloch was Pint, as he
considered the short straight lines crossing the lateral-line bore somewhat of a
resemblance to the acicular leaves of the pine. Bed or Cuckoo gurnard : elleck :
soldier : pine-leaved gurnard. Benhaiam coch, Welsh. Le Grondin rouge, and
Rouget commun, French.

Habits. Keeps near the bottom in moderately deep water. Feeds on small
fishes, molluscs and Crustacea. In Belfast it is said to be most abundant early in
the spring and late in the autumn.

Mode of capture. A voracious species that takes a bait freely, but is mostly
captured in the trawl.

Breeding. Couch observes that he found them with well-developed ova both
in January and also in April and June. Young about 1^ inches in length have
been taken in August.

As food. Large quantities are consumed in England, but in Scotland it does
not appear to be held in any estimation. In France it is taken in quantities for
the last four months of the year, and is much esteemed because of its firm flesh
and good taste; it is even preserved in olive-oil.

Habitat. Scandinavia and down the west coast of Europe to the Mediter-
ranean, and is also recorded from New York and the American shores of the
North Atlantic Ocean.

Common along the English coast, especially on the south and west, at all
seasons, and is likewise taken in Scotland : is pretty common in Banffshire
(Edward) and occasionally observed in St. Andrew's Bay (Mcintosh) : two were
taken in the Orkneys in the winter of 1850-51 (W. Baikie). It has been recorded
from Wick, the Moray Frith, and occasionally at Lossiemouth.

In Ireland it is common from Waterford on the south up the east coast to
Londonderry.

It attains to at least 18 inches in length.

3. Trigla hirundo, Plate XXIV.

Corax, Rondel, x, c. 7, p. 396, c. fig. ; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p. 299 ; Aldrov. Pise,
ii, c. 57 ; Willughby, Ich. iv, p. 280, t. P. 4. Corvus, Salv. Hist. Aquat. p. 194,
f. 71. Hirundo, Aldrov. Pise, ii, c. iii, p. 133; Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. 2,
p. 64, t. xvii, f . 8, 9 ; Ray, p. 88 ; Willugh. p. 280 ; Ray, p. 88. Lucerna Vene-
torum, Willugh. iv, p. 281 ; Ray, p. 88 ; Gronov. Zooph. p. 84, No. 284. Sapphi-
rine gurnard, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1), iii. p. 280, pi. lvi (Ed. 2), iii, p. 376,
pi. lxviii.

Trigla cuculus, Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 77 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 105.

Trigla hirundo, Linn. Syst. i, p. 497 ; Bloch, Ich. p. 518, t. lx ; Bonat. Ich.
p. 146, pi. lx, f. 238 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1344 ; Bl. Schn. p. 15 ; Donovan, Brit.
Fish, i, pi. i ; Lacep. iii, p. 353 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, pt. 2, p. 621 ; Turton, p. 102 ;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 205 ; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 40 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 214 ;
Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 79, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 73;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409 ; Parnell, Fishes Frith of Forth,
p. 16, pi. xx ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 41, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 47,
(Ed. 3) ii, p. 21 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 340 ; Swainson, ii, p. 262 ; Guichen.
Explor. Alger. Poissons, p. 39 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 3 ; Giinther, Catal. ii,
p. 202 ; Schlegel, De Dieren van Nederland, p. 43, pi. iv, f. 2 ; Moreau, Compt.
Rend. 1864, ii, p. 436 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 81 ; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 37 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 172.

60 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Trigla Icevis, Montagu, Mem. Wern. Soc. ii, pt. 2, p. 455 ; Flem. Brit. Anim.
p. 214, sp. 148; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 420; Embleton, Berwick. Nat. Field
Club, 1831, p. 22.

Trigla corvus, Risso, Hist. Nat. iii, p, 398.

Trigla corax, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesci, t. f. 1.

Trigla paztiloptera {Young), Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 47; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 2) i, p. 49, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 24 ; Swainson, ii, p. 262 ; Thompson,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 61, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 79 ; Demid. Voy.
Russ. Merid. iii, p. 375 ; Gruichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 39 ; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 3 ; Walker, Zool. 1859, p. 6540 ; Giiuther, Catal. ii, p. 203 ; Couch, Brit.
Fish, ii, p. 36, pi. lxx, f. 2.

Tubjish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 21, pi. lxv.

B. vii, D. 9/16-17. P. 10 + iii, V. 1/5. A. 15-16, C. 12. Ccec. pyl. 10, Vert.
14-15/19.

Length of head 3| to 4, of caudal fin 4| to 5^, height of body 6 to 6^ in the
total length. Eye \\ to 1| diameters in the postorbital portion of the head,
2 diameters from the end of the snout, and 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space
deeply concave. Upper profile from eyes to snout, with a slight descent. Bones
of the head with stellated ridges, which are least developed between the eyes.
Several spinate denticulations at the anterior-superior angle of the orbit. Pre-
orbital granulated anteriorly, even serrated in some examples and in the young :
angle of preopercle acute, and in the young there are two sharp spines.
Supra-scapular roughened, ending posteriorly in a short and sharp spine. Coracoid
with a roughened ridge passing across it and ending in a spine : all these spines
are more developed in the young than in the adult, and they differ in their
extent in adult examples. In the young a strong ridge ending in a spine passes
across the opercle : while the occiput has two spines posteriorly. The posterior
extremity of the maxilla almost reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth fine ones in the jaws and on the vomer : none on the palatines or tongue.
Fins first dorsal spines almost or quite smooth anteriorly, the second the longest
and equal to the length of the snout : rays of the second dorsal scarcely more
than half as high as the first dorsal, and some are divided at their extremities.
Pectoral longer than the head (this is subject to variation) and reaching to above
the seventh anal ray. Caudal emarginate. Scales small, nearly 200 irregular
rows descend towards the lateral-line, the scales of which are unarmed. From 25
to 27 spinate plates along the base of the dorsal fins. Air-bladder large, trilobed
all of equal length in the adult, anteriorly they communicate freely with one
another. Anteriorly the air-vessel is produced into two short horns : the outer
wall is very muscular. In the young, the lateral lobes are very short but they
gradually increase in length with the age of the fish. According to M. Moreau
(Comptes Rendus, 1864, t. lix, p. 436), the air-bladder is furnished with thick and
strong muscles of the striped or voluntary kind. Two large nerves pass to
it from the upper part of the spinal cord close to the first pair of dorsal nerves
and below the pneumogastric. The mucous membrane which lines the internal
surface of the air-bladder forms a fold or diaphragm which subdivides this cavity
into two secondary chambers, communicating by an aperture in this partition,
which has some function analagous ( to ,that of the pupil of the eye : as under
the microscope it is seen to be provided with sphincter-like muscular fibres
disposed concentrically to the opening, while others radially arranged pass at a
tangent from them. Both sets of muscular fibres are smooth and presumably of
the involuntary variety. In August, 1863, a section of the spinal cord above the
dorsal region was made in one of these fish while still living, the abdomen
was opened and a feeble galvanic current passed to the nerves proceeding to
the air-bladder. Sounds similar to those emitted during life were immediately
produced audible to persons standing at some distance. A current was next
applied to the muscle of the air-bladder but without any result. Next a window
was cut in the lower portion of the air-bladder so as to expose the diaphragm, and
galvanism being applied, it was seen to be thrown into a state of vibration but no

COTTID^E. 61

sounds were produced, due perhaps to an escape of gas from the chamber. Ccecal
appendages ten, or eight according to Cuvier and Valenciennes, so they may
vary, they are rather long. Colours brownish-red. Pectoral fin reddish externally
with bluish margins, blue internally with numerous blackish blotches, taking the
form of transverse bands. In the young the back is reddish-brown, abdomen
silvery, the sides being glossed with golden. Dorsal fins reddish, the first being
black-tipped, and the second violet with a dark basal band, and also dark alono- its
upper half. Caudal purplish. Pectoral violet externally, having irregular narrow
and dark transverse bands : on the posterior half or two-thirds of its inner side
exists a large oval black or very dark-blue blotch , on which are scattered small
milk-white or light-blue spots, this mark generally disappears in the adult, but
traces are frequently perceptible.

Names. Aldrovandus adopted the term hirundo for this fish, perhaps he
traced a resemblance between the spots on its pectoral fins to the white spots
on each of the tail feathers of the common swallow. It is known as
the Sapphirine gurnard, tub-fish, or tubbot : sea crow : red tubs : smooth sides.
Yfgyfarnog y mor, Welsh. In Belfast it is commonly called the gray gurnard, and
there the T. gumardus is called hnoud. H Hirondelle de mer, Le Perlon, and Rouget
grondin, French. De groote Toon, Dutch.

By a slip of the pen Linnaeus described Trigla hirundo as having " linea
laterali aculeata," which caused Pennant, Fleming, and others to describe "the
side-line as rough," and doubtless also misled Montague into the belief that
his fish without a rough lateral-line was a new species, so he named it T. Icevis.

Thompson's example of " the little gurnard" from Youghal, in Ireland, with
D. 10/15 and "lateral-line spinous," cannot have been T. paiciloptera, but perhaps
the young of T. lineata. Steindachner, in 1867, observed that T. paiciloptera, C. V.,
is identical with T. corax, Bonap. and T. capensis, C. V., and the young of
T. hirundo, which was confirmed by Professor Liitken in 1876.

Habits. This species usually remains near the bottom in rather deep water,
but occasionally rises to the surface. It lives on Crustacea, molluscs, and such
small fish as it can catch. The young generally lie at the bottom in shallow
water, with their pectoral fins widely expanded, the blue colours of which, and
the dark blotch covered with white spots, give them the appearance of gorgeous
butterflies, as of course the inner or coloured side becomes that portion which
is most exposed to view. It seems to be very fond of shrimps, and Lloyd
remarks that when in an aquarium any have fallen to the bottom, and got under
the sand, it has been observed to use the free rays of its pectoral fins to
disturb them by feeling, hooking, and poking above them (Hardw. Science Gossip,
1865, p. 236). Thompson found a sordid dragonet inside one; and Couch
observed a pecten as large as half a crown ; and small solens or razor-shells
have been obtained from their stomachs.

Means of capture. Usually by the trawl along with flat fish, but they also
take a bait and are occasionally captured in salmon nets in the autumn.

Breeding. This fish appears to breed during the first six months of the year.
Couch found them with mature ova in December and February. Risso observed
that they deposited eggs in the spring, and Couch found the roe enlarged both at
Christmas and also in May and July. Walker, when trawling in the Dee for
shrimps in March, 1859, frequently took the young (Zoologist, p. 6540).

As food. This species is nearly equal to the best sorts of gurnards, and is often
preferred in consequence of attaining to a large size ; its flesh, however, is rather
dry, and requires sauce. It is salted in the north of Europe, and thus used in
Denmark for ships' provisions.

Habitat. Norway, the western coast of Europe, round Great Britain and
Ireland, and through the Mediterranean and Adriatic.

Is common round the British coast, but scarcely so abundant as T. cuculus.
Yarrell says it is the most abundant, while it decreases in number towards the
north. It has been recorded at Lossiemouth in January, 1841, and October, 1845,
by Gordon (Zoologist, p. 3458), while Edward remarks that it is pretty common

G2 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

in Banffshire, where the largest are obtained towards the end of autumn. In the
spring of 1840 one of the young was taken from the stomach of a great northern
diver. Thompson likewise remarks that he has seen this species in autumn
captured in salmon nets at Ballautrae, in Ayrshire, and on different parts of the
coast in the country.

In Ireland, Thompson observes that this fish is found round the coast ; and at
Toughal it is termed tubs. Moore mentions it in Kerry. It is brought to the
Belfast market chiefly during the spring and autumn, but said to be in the best
condition in May.

It attains, according to Thompson, to at least 14 lb. weight, and 2 feet or more
in length.

4. Trigla gurnardus, Plate XXV.

Coccyx alter, Belon. i, p. 207 ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. 2, p. 65,
t. xvii, f. 11. Gornatuss. gurnardus griseus, Willughby, iv, c. 7, p. 279, t. S. 2, f. 1 ;
Ray, p. 88. Trigla, sp. 8 ; Artedi, Genera, p. 46 ; Gronov. Mus. Ich. p. 44, and
Zooph. p. 84, no. 283. Milvus, Rondel, x, c. 8, p. 297, c. fig ; Aldrov. ii, c. 58,
p. 279. Corystion, Klein, Mss. iv, pi. xiv, f. 2. Gurnardus griseus seu Guculus
griseus, Rutty, N. Hist. Co. Dublin, 1772, i, p. 367. Gray gurnard, Pennant,
(Ed. 1) iii, p. 276, pi. liv, (Ed. 2) iii, 371, pi. lxv; Low, Faun. Oread, p. 229.

Trigla gurnardus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 497 ; Bonaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 145,
pi. lx, f . 236 ; Gmel. Linn, i, p. 1342 ; Bloch, t. lviii ; Bl. Schn. p. 14 ; Donovan,
ii, pi. xxx ; Lacep. Poiss. iii, p. 358 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, pt. 2, p. 619, pi. xc ; Turton,
p. 102 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 207 ; Faber, Fische Islands, p. 124 ; Cuv. and Val. iv,
p. 62 ; Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 102, c. fig. ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 215 ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 48, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 53, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 28 ;
Templeton, Mag. N. Hist. (2) i, 1837, p. 409 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 342 ;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 262 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Field Club, 1838,
i, p. 170 ; Parnell, Fishes Frith of Forth, p. 18, pi. xxii ; White, Catal. p. 4 ;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 74 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 205 ; Schlegel,
De Dieren van Ned. p. 45, pi. iv, f . 1 ; Malm, CBfv. Sv. Akad. 1870, p. 829 ;
Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 37 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 172.

Trigla cuculus, Bloch, Ich. p. 516, t. lix ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1343 ; Bl. Schn. p. 14 ;
Bonaterre, Ency. p. 146, pi. lx, f . 237 ; Turton, p. 102 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 208 ;
Mont. Wern. Mem. ii, p. 457 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 215 ; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 67 ;
Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 343 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 207 ; Thomp. Pro. Zoo. Soc.
1837, p. 57 and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 74.

Trigla milvus, Lacep. Poiss. iii, p. 340, 362 ; Risso, Hist. Nat. iii, p. 395 ; Cuv.
and Val. iv, p. 67 ; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. iii, p. 52, c. fig.

Trigla Blochii, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 50, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 56,
(Ed. 3) ii, p. 32 ; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 21, t. xxiii ; White, Catal. p. 4 ;
Swainson, ii, p. 262.

Trigla gurnardi, var. Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 182.

Trigla aspera, Gronov. ed. Gray. p. 105.

Gurnard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 27, pi. lxviii.

Block's gurnard, Couch, 1. c. ii, p. 29, pi. lxix.

B. vii, D. 8-9/19, P. 10, V. 1/5, A. 18-19, C. 15, L. 1. 73-76, Ccec. pyl. 7-9,
Vert. 14/24.

Length of head 3| to 3f , of caudal fin 6 to 6, height of body 6 in the total
length. Eyes high up, situated nearer to the posterior than to the anterior end
of the head, in adults being about If diameter from the posterior end of the
head and two from the end of the snout. Interorbital space slightly concave and
a little less in extent than the diameter of the eye. Snout elongated, with its
upper profile nearly straight, being most obtuse in the young. Head with
stellated ridges the lines forming which are mostly tubercular and not very
prominent : upper surface of head tuberculated. The anterior extremity of the
preorbital denticulated, spinate in the young : two or three small supraorbital

COTTID^E. 63

spines : angle of the preopercle with two or three denticulations : opercular spine
strong, F and larger than that at the shoulder, while the opercle above the spine is
deeply emarginated so as to cause it to have a pointed prominence : coracoid with
a very strong spine. Two spines at occiput in the young. Teeth villiform ones
on the jaws and vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. Fins dorsal spines of
moderate strength, the second being rather the longest, equalling the distance
between the anterior end of the snout and the posterior margin of the eye,
they are roughened on their anterior edge. Pectoral does not quite reach the
commencement of the anal and is rather shorter than the ventral. Caudal
emarginate. Scales small. Lateral-line armed with about 74 spinous points
which are most distinct in the immature. Stomach and ccecal appendages similar
to T. hirundo. Air-bladder notched at its anterior extremity and ending in two
obtuse rounded points. Colours these vary widely, in some there are no white
spots, the upper half of the body being of a slaty-gray, conjoined with which a
black blotch usually exists on the first dorsal fin (T. Blochii) : this dorsal blotch
is, as a rule, present in all specimens, although in some it is faint or merges into
the colour of the remainder of the fin, while it usually becomes lost in examples
kept long in spirit: occasionally the dorsal blotch instead of being round is
semicinmlar. The white spots on the sides may run into narrow and sinuous lines ;
or else there may be a dark net- work surrounding light spaces. The dorsal blotch
is sometimes encircled by a light ring.

Varieties. Trigla Blochii having a black spot on the first dorsal fin and no
white spots on the body, has been considered a distinct species. Parnell showed
it to be a variety, and Thompson records instances of both it and T. gumardus,
likewise of the intermediate forms, observing that without having traced the
changes from youth upwards, one could hardly believe in the modifications which
really take place. As this fish increases in size the granulations extend over the rays
of the first dorsal fin and are not confined to the three or four anterior ones only.

Couch believed that he had twice obtained Trigla Blochii or else a species
nearly allied to it, and of which he gives a figure, plate lxix. Like T. gumardus
it is said to have the lateral-line rough, the roughness formed of small obtuse
points.

Tarrell seems never to have obtained Bloch's gurnard but named it from
Bloch's apparently erroneous figure ; his illustration shows the first spine of the
dorsal fin the highest, but in his second edition it is reduced to lower than the
second spine and it is similarly represented in the third edition. I have received
from Professor Giglioli of the Florence Museum an Italian example of this fish
which does not differ from the British variety.

Names. Gray gurnard : hardhead. In Scotland, crooner or croonach (perhaps
from croon " to croak ") : gowdie, girnat and croonyal, in Moray Frith
according to Gordon (Zoologist, p. 3458). Enoud or nowd, Ireland. Penhaiam
TJwyd and penhaiernyn, Welsh. Le grondin or grondin, French. Be klein poon
and knoshaen, Dutch.

Dr. Johnston observes that crooner may have reference either to the hard and
and somewhat peculiarly shaped head of the fish, from croon the top of the head ;
or it may be derived from the verb croon viz., to hum an air in an unmusical
tone, because of the peculiar noise which the fish sometimes utters on being taken
from the water. Thompson describes the sounds emitted by this fish as a kind
of snoring noise.

Habits. Gregarious, and said to be the least sensible to variations of
temperature of the whole of the genus. At the Westminster Aquarium they are
found to be the most difficult to keep alive ; perhaps they are unable to bear
confinement. Pennant, Couch, and others, remark _ upon their being fond of
sporting near the surface to which they mount with the apparent object of
enjoyment, as when there they move along at a slow space, rising and sinking in
the water for a short distance and uttering short grunts as if of satisfaction. At
other times they appear asleep, showing no signs of animation until an attempt is
made to take hold of them.

64 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Means of capture. They readily take a bait and are generally secured in deep
water. Pennant observes that they will bite at a piece of red rag. Thompson,
that they are mostly captnred in Ireland during the summer and autumn ; the
baits employed usually being " sand eels," young herrings, fat of meat, or a slice
of one of their own kind. Low observes that they are taken by sailors as they
approach the Orkneys by hanging over the stern of their vessel during a brisk
breeze a hook and baited line, which this fish, being a quick swimmer, takes.
When they are hauled on board they make a sort of croaking plaintive noise
something like an angry person growling to himself, and this lasts for some time.

Breeding. Probably twice a year, in January and December, also in June and
July. The roe is deposited at some distance from the shore, and Sars has
observed that the eggs float.*

As food. Said to be good, and with firm flesh but very inferior to the red
gurnard, partly from their lesser size : off Banffshire, Edward observes, they are
not much esteemed. Thompson likewise remarks that in Ireland they are not in
much favour for the table with those who can afford a choice, consequently they
form a cheap food for the poor.

Habitat. Baltic and west coast of Europe from Norway southwards,
also the Mediterranean and Adriatic.

It is an abundant British species extending northwards to the Orkneys
and Shetland Isles. It is very common on the west coast of Scotland and
frequently taken in the Moray Frith.

It is numerous all round Ireland, and Thompson observes that along the
northern coast they are frequently seen in vast shoals on the surface during the
summer season and are captured in great numbers. Wherever the red gurnard is
found, there the gray form is also common. In the month of June it is said to
appear in Donegal Bay in enormous shoals when it is eagerly sought for, some
eaten fresh, the remainder salted and laid up in store.

It attains to 2 feet in length according to Pennant.

5. Trigla lyra, Plate XXVI.

Lyra, Rondel, x, c. 9, p. 298, c. fig.; Gesner, iv, p. 516; Aldrov. ii, c. 7, p.
146; Willughby, iv, pp. 282, 283, t. S. 1, f. 4, and S. 2, f . 2 ; Ray, p. 89 ; Duham.
Peches, sect, v, t. viii, f. 1 ; Salv. p. 190, f . 70 ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, t. hi, c. 1,
art. 2, p. 65, t. xvii, f. 10. Trigla, Artedi, sp. 9, Genera, p. 46, syn. 74. Piper,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 279, pi. Iv (Ed. 2) iii, p. 374, pi. lxvii.

Trigla lyra, Linn. Sys. i, p. 496 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1342 ; Lacep. iii, p. 345 ;
Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 145, pi. be, f. 235; Bloch, t. cccl ; Bl. Schn. p. 14;
Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 102 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, v, pi. cxviii ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p.
620 ; Risso, Ich. Nice. p. 203, and Hist. Nat. iii, p. 393 ; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 55 ;
Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 215 ; Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 32, c. fig. ; Scouler,
Mag. Nat. Hist, vi, 1833, p. 529; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes, (Ed. 1) i, p. 44, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) i, p. 51, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 26; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 341; Swainson,
ii, p. 262 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 74 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger.
Poiss. p. 39 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 4 ; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 208 ; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 85.

Piper, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, ii, p. 23, pi. lxvi.

B. vii, D. 9-10/16-17, P. 10 + iii, V. 1/5, A. 16, C. 12. Ccec. pyl. 6, Vert.
13/20.

Length of head 3| to 3f , of caudal fin 5 to 6, height of body 4| to 5J in the
total length. Eye-' 1 to If diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, 2
diameters from the end of the snout in adults, \ to 1 diameter apart. Anterior
portion of the body very much broader than the posterior. Interorbital space
slightly concave. Upper profile, from eye to snout abrupt and concave. Bones
of the head with rough stellated ridges. A spine at the anterior-superior angle
of the orbit. A roughened ridge ci'osses the preopercle and ends at its angle

* Ann. and May, Nat. Hist. 1868 (4), i, p. 390.

COTTID^E. 65

in a short spine. Preorbital elongated anteriorly and ending in a broad
triangular plate, armed in front with several denticulations. Opercle with a
strong spine. A serrated ridge passes from the eye to the supra-scapular, wliich
ends in a large and sharp spine. The coracoid also terminates in a very long
spine equal to almost half the length of the head. The posterior extremity of the
maxilla does not reach to beneath the front edge of the eye. Teetli fine ones in
the jaws and vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. Fins dorsal spines strong,
the third the longest and equalling half the length of the head : the first spine
roughened anteriorly. Pectoral reaching to above the seventh or eighth anal
ray. Caudal emarginate. Scales much more distinct in large examples than
in some other species of the genus. Lateral-line unarmed. 25 to 27 strong,
spinate elevations along the base of the dorsal fin. Ccecal appendages six.
Air-bladder oval, smallest and pointed anteriorly, enlarged posteriorly but
without any divisions. Colour of a bright red, becoming lighter on the sides
and white beneath. Fins red.

Names. The piper : in Scotland according to Sibbald, crowner and sea-hen.
Pibydd, Welsh. La Lyre, French.

Habits. A wandering fish which Couch observed is sometimes common and at
others somewhat rare. When captured it emits a hissing sound by expelling air
through its gills. The stomach of one opened was full of Ophiuroidea.

Means of capture. Usually taken with the trawl.

As food. Is considered in some places as excellent for the table, even the
epicure Quin bearing testimony to its merits.

Habitat. From the British Isles and west coast of Europe through the Medi-
terranean.

Common on the south-west and western coasts of Great Britain, unless during
the winter months, but being a great wanderer it is often rare at one season,
numerous in another. It is little known to the north of England and not recorded
from the north of Scotland, although Scouler observes that it is not rare in
Glasgow, where examples sometimes weigh 7 lb.

In Ireland it is found on the south and south-west coasts according to Thomp-
son who considered Templeton's fish from the north of Ireland to be T. cuculus.
Moore has reported it from Kerry. The Earl of Ducie in Ballinskellig Bay,
obtained in 1876 four, in 1877 one, and in 1879 nine.

Pennant observes that it grows to 2 feet in length, and Jenyns that it attains
a weight of nearly 7 lb.

6. Trigla obscura, Plate XXVII .

Cuculus, Rondel. Pise. Mar. lib. x, c. 2, p. 287, c. fig. ; Gesner, Aquat. iv,
p. 305 and 1598, f. 17, c. fig. ; Aldrov. ii, c. 4, p. 138.

Trigla obscura, Linn. Mus. Ad. Frid. ii, p. 94 ; Bl. Schn. p. 16 ; Bonap. Faun.
Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 102, c. fig. ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 87 ; Gunther,
Catal. ii, p. 210.

Trigla lucerna, Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 76 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 209 ; Cuv. and
Val. iv, p. 72, pi. lxxii ; Tarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2) i, p. 63, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p.
39 ; Parnell, Mag. Zool. and Bot. i, p. 526 and Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 23, pi.
xxiv ; Guichen. Exp. Alger. Poiss. p. 40 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 5 (not
Trigla lucerna Linn.).

Trigla cuculus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 394.

Trigla filaris, Otto, Conspect. pp. 7 and 8.

Lanthorn gurnard, Couch, Fish. British Isles, ii, p. 33, pi. lxx.

B. vii, D. 10 | 1718, P. 10 + iii, V. 1/5, A. 17, C. 12, L. 1. 70, Ccec. pyl. 8,
Vert. 12/23.

Length of head 4^, of caudal fin 5f, height of body 7 in the total length.
y e diameter 1^ in the postorbital portion of the head, 2/3 of a diameter apart.
Interorbital space slightly concave. Upper profile, from _ eye to snout, descends
abruptly, and is slightly convex. Bones of the head with roughened stellated
ridges. Several small spines at the anterior- superior angle of the orbit. Preor-

5

66 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

bital with a strong spine anteriorly, and sometimes followed by a few smaller ones.
Opercular spine not well developed. Angle of preopercle with two small spines.
Supra-scapular and coracoid both ending in small spines. Teeth fine ones in jaws
and vomer, none on the palatines. Fins second dorsal spine very elongated,
equalling about 1/3 of the entire length of the fish. Pectoral about as long as the
head and reaching to above the third anal ray. Caudal forked in its last third.
Scales small. Lateral-line consisting of unarmed but lineated plates, about
one-third as wide as high. About 28 spinate plates along the base of the dorsal fins.
Intestines in the example figured, which is 6 inches in length, the extent of the
intestinal tract is 3 inches from the pylorus to the vent. Air bladder simple.
Colours superiorly of a vermilion tint, with a broad and shining silvery lateral
band along the whole length of the body, below which it becomes of a dull white.
Pectoral fins deep blue : the other fins of a rosy hue.

Names. Lucerna due to the brilliant silvery band along its side : lanthorn- or
shining- gurnard : long-finned captain. Le Milan, French.

Habits. Gregarious and when pursued springing out of the water in their
efforts to escape. Pliny in old times and later both Lacepede and Risso believed
that it possesses the power of displaying a conspicuous light by night, the latter
author considering this faculty inherent in all examples of the genus. Cuvier
observed that it arrives off the coast of Provence in the month of March.

Means of capture. By the trawl, is said not to take a bait.

Breeding. Supposed to be about Midsummer.

As food. Its flesh is said to be firm, similar to that of the red gurnard,
Trigla cuculus.

Habitat. Well known throughout the Mediterranean and Adriatic, also
occasionally found along the south coast of England. It was first brought to notice
as British by Parnell, who obtained several from the Brixham trawlers by whom
it was known as the long-finned captain. In 1849, August 9th, Mr. Cocks found
one in trawl refuse, while another was procured from a fish-stall at Helford.
Couch obtained it from Plymouth, where he observed it does not appear to be
caught in any abundance. It has also been recorded from Bridgewater in
Somersetshire.

It is said to scarcely reach to a foot in length.

CATAPHRACTI. 67

Family, VI CATAPHRACTI, Muller.

Body elongated, subcylindrical, or angular. Preopercle having an osseous
articulation with the infraorbital ring of bones. Ventral fins thoracic. Body
covered with bony plates or scales.

Geographical distribution. This family has representatives in most seas : the
species are generally of a small size, some forms being pelagic while others are
more strictly littoral.

Only two Genera have been recorded from the British Isles, these being
examples of a common Agonus or armed bnll-head : the representative of the
second being the rarely observed Peristethus or mailed-gurnard.

Genus I Agonus, Block, Schneider.

Aspidophorus, Lacepede : Phalangistes, Pallas : Cataphractus, Fleming :
Agonomalus and Paragonus, Guichenot.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchiai well developed. Head and body angular
and covered with bony plates. Teeth in the jaws, present or absent on the vomer, none
on the palatines. Two dorsal fins, fin-rays unbrauched : no free pectoral rays.
Lateral-line present. Pyloric appendages few. Air-bladder absent.

Liitken remarks upon the nnmerons attempts which have been made to
subdivide this Genus. Agonopsis he considers may be retained because it
possesses palatine and vomerine teeth, the former having been overlooked by
Kroyer. He likewise observes upon the way in which species have been unduly
multiplied, Agonus Chiloensis, Jenyns and Giinther, being the same as A. niger,
Kroyer and Giinther. Also Agonus melarmoides, Deslongch, being identified with
A. decagonus, Bl. Schneider, and also with A. spinosissimus, Kroyer and Giinther.
While Agonus cataphractus, Fabricius, is A. decagonus, it being an error to
suppose that Agonus cataphractus is found in Greenland.

Geographical distribution. Greenland, Iceland, and as far south as the coasts
of Britain, also Kamtschatka, the Kurile Islands, and A. sturioides, Guichenot, from
China. In the South Pacific a species has likewise been taken off the coast of
Chili.

1. Agonus cataphractus, Plate XXVIII, fig 1.

Cataphractus, Schonevelde, Ich. p. 30, pi. iii ; Jonston, Hist. Pise. lib. ii, t. ii,
c. ix, p. 114, t. xlvi, f. 6 ; Willughby, p. 211, t. N. 6, f. 2, 3 ; Ray, p. 77. Cottus,
Artedi, Gen. p. 49, Spec. p. 87; Gronov. Zooph. p. 79, No. 271; Klein, MSS. iv,
p. 42; Pallas, Spic. vii, p. 30. Armed bull-head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1)
iii, p. 217, pi. xxxix (Ed. 2), iii, p. 293, pi. xliii.

Cottus cataphractus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 451 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1207 ; Bloch, t. xxxix,
f. 3, 4 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. xvi ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 263, pi. xxxv ; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 95; Faber, Faun. Grcenl. p. 155 and Fische Isl. p. 117; Gronov.
ed. Gray, p. 103 ; Schlegel, De Dieren van Xederland, p. 50, pi. v, f . 4.

Agonus cataphractus, Bl. Schn. p. 104 ; Nilss. Syn. p. 95 ; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 7 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 211 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 38 ; Liitken,
Vidd. Medd. 1876, p. 384 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 172.

Cataphractus Schoneveldii, Flem. Brit. An. p. 216.

5*

68 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Aspidoplwrus armatus, Lacep. Poiss. iii, p. 222.

Aspidoplwrus Europeus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 201 ; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc.
1835, p. 80 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 70, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 85 (Ed. 3)
ii, p. 69 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409 ; Parnell, Fish. Firth of
Forth, p. 28 ; Richardson, Fann. Bor. Amer. iii, p. 48.

Aspidoplwrus cataphractus, Jenyns, Man. p. 346 ; Fries och Ekstr. p. 167, t. xl ;
Johnston, Berwick. N. F. Chib. 1838, i, p. 170; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland,
iv, p. 82.

Pogge, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 41, pi. lxxii.

B. vi, D. 5/5-6, P. 16, V. 1/2, A. 6, C. 12, L. 1. 32, Ccec. pyl. 5-6, Vert. 11/25.

Length of head 4<\ to 4|, of caudal fin \ to 7, height of body h\ to 6|- in the
total length. Eye 2 to 3 diameters in the length of the postorbital portion
of the head, 1 to \\ diameters apart, and nearer the snout than the posterior end of
the gill covers. Head wide and depressed, the body being octagonal in shape
becoming more angular and of less size posteriorly. Head covered by skin,
numerous small barbels at the angle of the mouth, on the chin and over the
branchiostegous rays. Interorbital space nearly flat. The maxilla reaches to
beneath the front edge of the eye. Nostrils tubular, the anterior being most
developed, while they are placed at some distance asunder. Two pairs of turbinal
spines elevated on an osseous base on the snout, and beneath each of which are a
pair of simple barbels. The posterior bone of the infraorbital ring is articulated
with the preopercle, and armed with a spine at its angle : while another strong
spine exists at the angle of the preopercle. Ridges on the head end in a blunt
occipital and likewise suprascapular spine. There are the orifices of about ten
large pores between the two preopercular spines along the inferior surface of the
head, behind the lower jaws. Teeth villiform in jaws, none on the vomer,
palatines, or tongue. Fins spines of the first dorsal rather weak and not higher
than the rays of the second dorsal, which latter are unbranched. Pectoral large,
and reaching to beneath the middle of the first dorsal, its rays are simple, as are
also those of the anal and caudal, the last fin being nearly wedge-shaped. Scales
in the form of scutes covered by bony plates : two spined ridges commence one at
either side of the occiput and coalesce behind the second dorsal fin, forming a
single one which passes to the upper surface of the base of the caudal fin : a second
commences from above the pectoral fin, and is continued to the middle of the side
of the base of the caudal fin : while on the lower surface of the body a blunt riclge
commences from below the base of either pectoral fin, coalescing just posterior to
the end of the base of the anal, and being continued as a single ridge to the lower
surface of the base of the caudal fin. Lateral-line not spined, and situated
between the two median ridges on the side of the body. Coecal appendages
5 or 6 short ones. Colours of a light gray tinged with yellow : 4 or 5 wide, and
nearly black, bands pass from the back down the sides, one also goes over the
head : numerous small and dark spots. Fins yellow with dark bands or marks.
Pectoral yellow with numerous dark spots and two black bands. These colours
become duller in adults.

Varieties. The variations of colour in this species are considerable, and Liitken
1. c. gives a table of those observed in Iceland, Denmark and Faroe.

Names. Pogge, armed bidl-head, lyrie, sea poacher : shell-backed bull-head, a
local name. Pluck, noble, Scot. Penbivl, Welsh. De Geharnaste Bonderpad,
Dutch.

Habits. Usually frequents shores, appearing to prefer the mouths of rivers
and harbours, but has been recorded as captured some distance out at sea. In
rough localities it keeps near the bottom, but does not usually frequent rocks.
Its food consists of aquatic insects, worms, and small Crustacea.

Means of capture. Often taken by shrimpers, especially in sandy bays : also
by the dredge, trawl, and ground seine. It has been recorded from the stomach
of a haddock captured five miles from land. Its mouth is too small to admit a
bait.

I 'ned'uig. Yarrell says it spawns in May. In a female example 5 inches long

CATAPHRACTI. G9

from Southend, captured in February, the eggs, which are comparatively large,
were nearly ready for extrusion. Its ova are deposited among stones.

As food. It is too insignificant to be of any value, but its flesh is said to be
firm and good.

Habitat. From the coasts of Iceland and Norway, the Baltic, the German
Ocean, and around the British shores.

In Britain it is not uncommon along the south coast, but becomes compara-
tively rare in Devonshire and Cornwall, being more common on the eastern than
on the western shores of the kingdom, and very numerous at the mouth of the
Thames. In Scotland it has been recorded along the east coast at St. Andrew's,
while it is said to be common on the west sands after storms. Gordon observes
that in the Moray Firth in January, 1849, ten examples from 2 to 5 inches long
were found in a cod-fish (Zoologist, p. 3458). In Banffshire, Edward remarks
this is another stomach species,* though he also took them but sparingly among
the rocks at low water. In the Orkneys and Zetland it is not common according
to Baikie.

In Ireland it is said to be common around the coast : Templeton recorded an
example from Carnolloc Bay, the only one he had known caught off the Irish
shores.

It attains to at least 6|- inches in length, an example of this size from
Brighton, having been given me by Mr. J. Carrington, f.l.s.

* A term applied to such as he has obtained from the stomachs of larger species of fish.

70 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II Peristethus, Kaup.

Peristedion, Lacepede.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Head parallelopiped in shape,
the sides and upper surface cuirassed with bone : the preorbital prolonged anteriorly into
a flat, projecting process. One or more barbels on the lower jaw. Teeth absent. One
or two dorsal fins, the posterior of which is the most developed. Two free pectoral
appendages. Body covered with bony, scale-like plates. Pyloric appendages few or
in moderate numbers. Air-bladder present.

Geographical distribution. From the south coast of Britain, through the
Mediterranean, also from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to China. A species
has likewise been taken at the Sandwich Isles in the North Pacific Ocean.

These angular, and otherwise remarkably shaped, fishes appear to be pelagic
forms which but rarely approach the shores, unless under abnormal conditions,
as after storms. They perhaps live at considerable depths.

Peristethus cataphractum, Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2.

Lyra altera, Rondel, x, c. 9, p. 299, c. fig. ; Aldrov. ii, c. 7, p. 147 ; Gesner,
p. 517, bis ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. ii, t. 1, c. 9, p. 114, t. xxiii, f. 2 ; Willughby,
p. 283, S. 3 ; Ray, p. 89. Lyra, Salv. f . 192. Coccyx, Belon. p. 209. Trigla,
sp. 10, Artedi, Genera, p. 46 ; Gronov. Zooph. p. 84, No. 282. Cataphractus, sp.
Klein, MSS. iv, p. 43, No. 4. Duhamel, Peches, Sec. v, p. 113, pt. ix, f. 2.
Trigla Hispanorum chabrontera, Osbeck, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. iv, p. 201.

Trigla cataphracta, Linn. Syst. i, p. 490 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1341 ; Brunn. Pise.
Mass. p. 72 ; Bloch, t. cccxlix : Bl. Schn. p. 16 ; Bonaterre, p. 145, pi. lix, f. 234 ;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p 104 ; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 431.

Trigla hamata, Bl. Schn. p. 16.

Peristedion malarmat, Lacep. iii, p. 369 ; Moore, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) i. 1837.
p. 17, c. fig.

Peristedion cataphractum, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 101, pi. lxxv ; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 2) i, p. 67, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 43 ; Risso, Eur. Mer. iii, p. 402 ; Cuv.
Regne Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. xx, f. 3 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 40 ; White,
Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 5.

Peristedion chabrontera, Lacep. iii, p. 373 ; Risso, 1. c.

Peristethus cataphractum, Kaup, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 105, pi. vhi, f. 1 ;
Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 217.

Armed gurnard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 38, pi. lxxi.

B. vii, D. 7/ysIy^, P. 12 + II, V. 1/5, A. 1821, C. 11. L. 1, 29-30, L. tr. 3/3,
Ccec. pyl. ix-x, Vert. 10/23.

Length of head 2f, of caudal fin 8, height of body 7 in the total length.
Eyes the diameter ecpial to the postorbital length of the head, and they are
rather more than 1 diameter apart. Body of an octagonal shape, decreasing in
size posteriorly, while its large head has its preorbitals produced anteriorly
into two flattened and rather diverging processes, the distance between the
extremities of which is equal to 2^- or 3 times in the extreme length of the
snout. Two or three small spines on the upper surface of the snout. A sharp
ridge passes from the preorbital to the angle of the preopercle, where it ends
in a spine. Opercle with a ridge across its centre likewise terminating in a
spine. Supraorbital margin serrated : interorbital space concave. A raised and
spinate ridge passes from the eye to the occiput, and is continued along the
base of the dorsal fin to the upper ed^e of the tail. Mouth inferior, not extending
to beneath the eyes. A row of filiform barbels along the lower edge of the
mandibles, and another beneath the chin. Teeth absent. Fins spines of first
dorsal fin are elongated far beyond the interspinous membrane. Rays of
second dorsal and anal unbranched. Pectoral with two well-developed free
rays at its base. Ventral does not reach the vent. Caudal slightly emarginate.
Scales large and osseous, forming four raised and spinate ridges along either

CATAPHRACTI. 71

side of the body, they consist of a superior one which passes close along the base
of the dorsal fins to the upper edge of the tail : a similar ventral ridge along the
base of the anal fin, and two intermediate parallel ridges. Three short angular
scales on the base of the caudal fin. On the under surface, between the throat
and the commencement of the anal fin, are three bony plates ; the anterior is
2 times longer than wide : the middle one twice as long as wide : and the
posterior one as long as wide. Intestines stomach small, coecal appendages in the
form of nine or ten short processes surrounding the commencement of the small
intestines. Air-bladder simple. Colours an uniform scarlet, becoming of a flesh
or golden shade towards the abdomen. Anal and dorsal fins crimson : the remainder
pale and grayish.

Names. Armed or mailed-gurnard, in allusion to its cuirassed body and
gurnard as relating to the fishes to which it appears to be most closely allied.

Habits. Risso says it is present in the Mediterranean at all seasons in rocky
localities, its haunts are chiefly in deep water, while it approaches shallow places
in the spring. It is very active and restless : while its snout is frequently found
to be damaged, probably from its driving against rocks or stones.

Habitat. This fish does not appear to be rare in the Mediterranean, and
wanderers are occasionally taken on the south coast of Britain off Cornwall.

Dr. Moore recorded the first British example in the autumn of 1836 taken in
a trawl between Plymouth and the Eddystone, it was 11 inches in length. In
February, 1849, a second example, ll inches in length, was secured in Mount's
Bay. Two were captured by a boat off Gorran, as mentioned by Couch, who
received from Penzance the specimen he has figured.

For the example figured, I am indebted to Dr. Hubrecht, of Leyden. The
fish is said to attain to 2 feet in length in the Mediterranean.

72 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family, VII PEDICULATI, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals five or six : pseudobranchise usually absent. Skeleton fibro-
osseous. Head and anterior portion of the body large, the former depressed or
compressed. Preorbital not articulated with the suborbital ring of bones. Gills
2i, 3, or 3 : gill-opening reduced to a small foramen situated in or near the
axilla. Eyes superior or lateral. Teeth minute, villiform, or cardiform. The
spinous dorsal fin when present is situated well forward, and mostly composed
of a few isolated spines or tentacles : the carpal bones are prolonged into a kind
of arm, ending at the base of the pectoral fin: ventrals when present, j ugular,
with four or five soft rays. Skin smooth, or with small spines, or tubercles. Air-
bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages few or absent.

Bleeker, Gill, and some others divide the Pediculati into three families,
Lophoidei, Chironectoidei, and Maltheoidei.

Geographical distribution. Inhabitants of all seas. These fishes, due to their
mode of progression, have a wide geographical range. Generally inactive, their
peculiar pectoral fins enable them to walk or progress over moist ground or slimy
rocks in quest of their prey, and even clasp pieces of wood or sea- weed, attached
to which some are frequently carried away by currents, and have been observed
far out at sea. Although bad swimmers, Dussumier remarks that Antennarii
inflate themselves and float on the surface of the water. Some conceal themselves
in the sand or mud, merely displaying their erectile first dorsal spine, which,
situated on the head, is provided with an excrescence at its extremity, resembling
a worm or piece of meat. By agitating this, smaller fishes are attracted and fall
a prey to the artful angler. " The modified dermoneurals, forming the cephalic
tentacles of Lophius and Antennarius, are as frequently reproduced as they are
injured, to meet the peculiar use which these angling fishes make of them: they
may be observed in every stage of growth " (Owen, Comp. Anat. i, p. 567).

Genus I Lophius, Artedi.

Lophiopsis, Guich.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchioi present. Head very large, broad and
depressed : many spines on its surface. Cardiform teeth in the jaios and jialatmes,
usually on the vomer, but none on the tongue. Gills three. The three anterior spines
of the first dorsal fin modified into tentacles, the succeeding ones attached together by
an interspinous membrane: second dorsal and anal fins short. Air-bladder absent.
Pyloric appendages two.

Geographical distribution. The fishes of this genus are littoral forms dis-
tributed throughout the seas of Europe and the coasts of North America,
extending to the Cape of Good Hope, China, and Japan. The European Loj>hius
piscatorius has 28-31 vertebra? and the humeral spine as a rule 3 points : L. bude-
gassa of the Mediterranean has 27 to 30 vertebra?, and its humeral spine is long
and simple : while the Japanese L. setigerus has merely 19 vertebrae.

These fishes have excited wonder in the minds of naturalists and others
from the earliest ages. Aristotle observes there is a species of frog which is
termed the fisher, deriving its name from the wonderful industry it displays in
procuring food. In front of its eyes it has certain appendages resembling hairs,
dilated at their extremity, forming baits. After having stirred up the mud or
sand it conceals itself and elevates these appendages : the small fishes coming to
seize them are drawn into its mouth. Plutarch likewise remarks that the Lophius
fishes with a line, for it throws out from its neck a filament which it extends to
a distance in the manner of a line, letting it out and drawing it back at pleasure ;
this being done when it perceives any little fishes about it, it allows them to bite

PEDICULATT. 73

the extremity of this filament, being itself concealed beneath the sand or in the
mud, when it gradually retracts the member until the fish is near enough to be
swallowed by a quick motion.

Lophius piscatorius, Plate XXIX.

AXiag fidrov, Aristot. Hist. Anim. ix, c. 27, ii, c. 13, v, c. 5 and 14. Bdrpaxog
AXluq, Aristot. ix, c. 37 ; ^Elian, vii, p. 286 ; Oppian, ii, p. 33.

Bana, Ovid, v, p. 126 ; Plin. ix, c. 24, xxv, c. 10. Bana marina, Belon. p
85 ; Jonst. Pise. 1, lib. 1, tit. 1, c. 3, Art. 3, Punct. 9, p. 36, t. ii, f. 8. Bana
piscatrix, Rondel, i, lib. 12, c. 20, p. 363 ; Salv. His. Aq. p. 129, f. 47 ; Gesner,
Aquat. iv, p. 813 ; Schonev. p. 59 ; Aldrov. iii, c. 64, p. 466 ; Willughby, p. 85,
t.El; Ray, Synop. p. 29 ; Ratty, Nat. Hist. Co. Dublin, p. 349 ; Leight, Nat.
Hist. Lancashire, p. 186, pi. vi, f. 5 ; Borlase, Cornwall, p. 265, pi. xxvii, f. 3.
Lophius, Artedi, Genera, p. 62, sp. 1, Synon. p. 87 ; Gronov. Mus. i, p. 57 and
Zooph. p. 58. Batrachus, Klein, MSS. iii, p. 15, sp. 1, 2 ; Pontoppidan, Nat.
Hist. Norway, ii, p. 244 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii, sect, ix, p. 94, pi. xviii ; Ascan.
Icon. t. xxxv, xxxvi ; Strom, Sond. i, p. 271. Common angler, Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 120, pi. xviii (Ed. 2) iii, p. 159, pi. xxi, also the Long Angler
(Ed. 1) iii, p. 123 (Ed. 2) iii, p. 162. The fishing-frog, Low, Fauna Oread, p. 183.

Lophius piscatorius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 402, and Faun. Suec. p. 108; Mull.
Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 38 ; Retz. Faun. p. 308 ; Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 7 ; Bon.
Ency. Ich. p. 14, pi. viii, f. 26 ; Lacep. i, p. 304, pi. xiii, f. 1 ; Bloch, iii, p. 82, t.
lxxxvii ; Bl. Schn. p. 139; Donovan, Brit. Fish, v, pi. ci; Turton, Brit. Faun,
p. 115 ; Mitch. Lit. and Phil. Trans. N. York, i, p. 465 ; Cuv. Reg. Anim. 111.
Poiss. pi. lxxxiv ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 214; Richard. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fishes,
p. 103 ; Storer, Mass. Rep. pp. 71, 404; Mohr. Isl. Nat. p. 61 ; Faber, Fisc. Isl.
p. 55 ; Shaw, Nat. Misc. xi, pi. 422 ; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. iii, p. 61, c. fig. ;
Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 344, pi. ccclxii ; Nilss. Skand. Fis. Faun. p. 245 ; Jenyns,
Brit. Vert. p. 389 ; Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 170; Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 253 ;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 330 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 269, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 305 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 388; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 172 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 47 ; Thomps.
Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 119 ; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 444 ;
Gaimard, Voy. Isl., &c., Poiss. pi. xix ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 80 ;
White, Catal. Fish. p. 56; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 179; Schlegel, De Dieren van
Nederland, p. 56, pi. iv, f . 6 ; Baird, American Nat. 1871, v, p. 785 ; Mcintosh,
Fish. N. Uist, Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew's,
p. 175 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 68.

Batrachus piscatorius, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 47.

Lophius Americanus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 380 ; De Kay, New York Fauna,
Fishes, p. 162, pi. xxviii, f. 87 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 181.

Lophius vomerinus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 381 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 181.

Lophius upsicephaHs, Smith, Illus. Zool. S. Africa, Pisces, pi. ix ; Giinther,
Catal. iii, p. 181.

Angler, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 204, pi. ex.

Young.

Lophius eurypterus Diib. en kor. kgl. Vet. Akad. Hand!. Stock. 1844, p. 63,
t. iii, f. 1, 2 ; Nilss. Skand. Faun, iv, p. 251.

Lophius piscatoritis, Giinther, Ann. and Mag. March, 1861, p. 190, pi. x, f. c. e.

Monstrosities.

Lophius cligitatus Ferguson, Phil. Trans, liii, p. 88, pi. xiii.

Lophius barbatus, Montinus, Act. Holm, iii, 1779, t. iv ; Gmel. Linn, i, p. 1480.

Lophius Fergusonis, Lacep. i, pp. 303, 330 ; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 496.

Fishing frog of Mount's Bay, or Long Angler, Borlase, Nat. Hist. Cornwall,
p. 266, t. xxvii, and Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. liii, p. 170.

Lophius Cormobicus, Shaw, Zool. v. p. 381 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 390.

B. vi, D. 3/3/11-12, P. 13, V 1/5, A. 9-11, C. 8, Ccec. pyl. 2, Vert. 30 (29-31).
Head large in comparison to that of the entire fish ; it is depressed, broader

74 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

than long, being orbicular anteriorly, wbile the body is tapering and compressed
posteriorly. The height of the head is less than that of the body, and its length
is from 2 j to 2\ or even 3 in that of the entire fish, being comparatively somewhat
longer in the half-grown than it is in the adnlt. Eye rather small, the width
of the concave interorbital space equalling the distance of the eyes from the end
of the snout : supraorbital ridge spined. Mouth very wide, the extent of the gape
being equal to about three quarters of the greatest width of the head. Lower
jaw prominent. Numerous spines over the head, and three, rarely two, on the
humerus. Gill opening small and situated in the axil of the pectoral fin, where
a large pouch is formed. Teeth two rows of sharp cardiform ones directed
backwards and curved slightly inwards, exist in both jaws, the inner row being
the larger : they are more movable in the young than in the adult, giving the
appearance as if hinged, and only capable of yielding inwards so as to permit
entrance into but prevent exit from the mouth. Two or three teeth at either side
of the head of the vomer and in a single row along the palatines : none on the
tongue. Fins the first dorsal fin consists of six spines, the three anterior of
which are detached, filamentous, and of varying lengths ; the first, inserted just
posterior to the upper lip, is provided at its extremity with a rigid fleshy and
glistening termination : both it, the second, and the third have also some short
lateral skinny flaps. The base of the first spine is in the form of a ring which
plays inside another ring, as shown in plate xxix : M. Bailly enumerates 22
muscles as attached to this spine. The succeeding three spines are connected
together by a deeply cleft interspinous membrane. The second dorsal is
enveloped, especially at its base, by a thick skin, which is continued from the
base of the last ray to the upper caudal ray. Pectorals large and pediculated,
the rays thick and unbranched. Ventral short. Anal commences rather
posterior to the origin of the second dorsal. Caudal cut almost square. The skin
is loose and somewhat thin, continued over the bases of the fins : numerous filaments
having fringed edges are placed at short distances asunder round the lateral
margin of the body in the adult, while there is one close to the base of the
premaxillary, and several over the caudal portion of the body. Colours
generally brown, reticulated with dark lines : the outer ends of the lower surface
of the pectoral and ventral fins black. Occasionally there exists a light central
patch down the back, which includes some of the first rays of the dorsal fin, while
some white may also exist on the pectoral and caudal fins, the latter having a
vertical black band.

In the young (see fig. 2) the head is broader than long, but less depressed
than in the adult. The depression increases with age, while the spines of the
first dorsal fin have lateral soft branched enlargements along their anterior and
posterior edges. These immature forms, however, appear to be very rarely
captured.

Varieties Ferguson's Angler and Borlase's Long-Angler appear to be
monstrosities, i.e., deformed or mutilated examples of this fish. L. vomerinus,
the Cape of Good Hope, has no teeth on the vomer in the single example known.

Navies. Angler, a term applied to this fish by Pennant owing to its habits :
fishing -frog, frog-fish, its hideous aspect having been considered to give it some
distant resemblance to frogs in their tadpole condition : sea-devil, monk-fish, toad-
fish, nass-fish. In Scotland, wide-gab : Jcethrie, Moray Firth. Morlyffant, Welsh.
In Ireland, friar, molly-gowan and briarbot : at Strangford Lough termed
kilmaddy. Le Baudroye commune, French. Be zee-duivel, Dutch. Whether this
fish was ever the type of the ridiculous images of demons and goblins in times
gone by, as suggested by Lacepede, is probably open to discussion. Its ventral
with five digits, its pectoral with hinged arm-like bases might, he believes, have
been looked upon as arms and legs ; and its enormous head as an exaggeration
of that of man. It received the name of diable-de-mer, while its skin prepared
so as to be transparent, and made luminous by a light placed in its interior,
has frequently served to make people of not over strong intellects believe that
they have seen apparitions.

Habits. Inactive, but with an insatiable appetite, which its slow progression

PEDICULATI. 75

compels it to gratify by stratagem. During the summer and autumn it resides
near the shore, where by means of its pectoral fins, it forms for itself a cavity
in the sand, or should the ground be rough, it lies as if dead, where its floating
filaments, kept in motion by the tide, decoy other fish, and the angler's tendril is
no sooner touched than the game is caught. They swallow shell fish, and in fact
almost any substance not too large. At times, however, even these stratagems fail
in obtaining for them sufficient nourishment, and then they have been known to
leave the bottom seeking for food at a higher elevation. Couch mentions how a
fisherman had hooked a cod-fish, and while drawing it up he felt a heavier
weight attach itself to his line, which proved to be an angler of large size, and
only relaxed its hold on receiving a heavy blow on the head. On another
occasion one seized a hooked conger eel, Conger vulgaris, the latter struggled
until it obtained an exit through the gill opening of the angler, and both
were thus drawn up together. They will even come to the surface* and
gorge anything they imagine may be useful as food. Mr. Blake-Knox recorded
how One of these fishes was brought to him with a cormorant, Phalacrocorax
carlo, in its throat, which had been swallowed as far as its shoulders : the bird
struggled, and both were seen on the surface of the water and captured. In
another instance the same exhibition was witnessed, the bird being a gull, Lams
argentatus, that measured nearly A>\ feet from tip to tip of its wings, but as the
angler's capacity was limited, it being only 3 feet long, the bird's feet, tail, and
ends of its wings projected from the fish's mouth, causing the latter to be choked.
An angler has been seen to seize a northern diver, Golymbus gracialis, and the two
were secured by a fisherman while they were struggling for mastery. An entire
and perfectly fresh widgeon, Anas feneloipe, has been taken from inside one at
Belfast, while a similar occurrence has been recorded from Youghal, with this
difference, that the bird was said to be alive. They have also been known to
devour guillemots, Uria troile, and razor-bills, Alca tor da, and would doubtless
swallow any bird they could capture. They are not always discriminating as to
the substances which they engulf, one has been known to swallow a large block
of granite, used as an anchor-stone for fishing, it was however covered with blood,
slime, and fish-scales (Zoologist, 1865, p. 9470). A few years since one gorged
the white-washed cork buoy of a crab-pot, and from its being unable to sink
again with it, became strangled and was so caught.f Skates, gurnards, and
various fishes have been taken from their stomachs. Pennant among these
included the dog-fishes, and for this reason he remarks that in his time the
fishermen near Scarborough returned those captured to the sea. Parnell says
that some fishermen at Queensferry, seeing the water much discoloured at a
particular spot near the shore, poked the bottom with a long-handled mop : an
angler seized it, and before it could disengage its teeth, was hauled into the boat.
It measured 4 feet 9 inches in length. Mr. Todhunter observed an angler
in shallow water near the shore at Youghal, and presented the butt end of his
whip to it, this it seized and held on to so firmly that it was actually dragged on
shore. Johnston relates how one of these fishes, having been left on the beach
by a receding tide, a fox came along searching for provender ; chancing to thrust
his nose inside the jaws of the angler, they closed, and thus reynard was held
until observed by passers by. Thompson tells us that these fishes are frequently
killed at Keem in Achil by the receding waves carrying back quantities of sand,
which getting into their mouths, disables them, and being thus seen from the
shore, they are, in their extremity, approached and despatched with pitchforks.

Their muscular pectoral fins enable them to creep along the ground,
consequently they are able to move about without agitating the water, as they
would have to do were it necessary to use their tails for progression. Rondelet
asserted that they live for a long time after their removal from the water : Cuvier
considered the contrary to be the case, while Couch observed that when the skin

* Mr. R. Conch states that the Lophius " frequently rises to the surface of the water in the
summer and autumn, and lies basking in the sun."
t R. Couch, Zoologist, 1847, p. 1609.

76 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

has been kept moist the fish has been known to live out of its proper element for
several days. Some authors have supposed that the young of these fishes when
alarmed seek for shelter in the branchial pouch in the axilla of the pectoral fin.
Thompson alludes to an instance mentioned in a Dublin newspaper, wherein a
man bathing at Kingstown was seized by the leg by a Lopliius, and considerably
injured : the fish was said to have been captured, so there was no doubt as to the
species. Montague has remarked that even when captured its rapacious appetite
is not destroyed, as it generally devours some of its fellow prisoners, which,
especially flounders, have been occasionally taken from its stomach alive.

These fishes have also been watched when in confinement, thus Mr. Saville
Kent {Field, Nov. 14th, 1874) tells us that at the Brighton Aquarium the angler
gave the appearance of a mass of rugged rock, the lower jaw being like a ledge
from which are dependant small fleshy tentacles, a line of which are continued
backwards along the sides to the tail. These resemble small, flat, calcareous
sponges, Grantia compressa, Ascidians, Zoophytes, and other low organisms, which
are found on the lower margin of every rocky ledge. On its head are two large
tendrils employed for alluring prey, the foremost of which, by its digitated
membrane is the facsimile of a young frond of oar-weed, Laminaria digitata, both
in shape and colour : and in the tendril behind it we have a repetition of the
same, with the blade of the frond, as it were, worn away by the current of the
ocean. The large and prominent eye has the aspect of a hollow, truncated cone,
and with its longitudinal stripes, resembles the shell of an acorn barnacle with an
amount of exactness which is patent to the most ordinary observer. Lying prone
at the bottom of the ocean, among rocks and debris, it might well pass muster as
an inanimate object, which other fish could approach with impunity, and not
discover their error until too late to escape from its merciless jaws. When it
first discovers its prey, it becomes excited, and works its worm-like filament,
which is furnished with a glittering piece of skin at the top, which acts as a lure
to the small fish. This curious appendage is used just as if the creature was
going to throw a fly to tempt the fish. In the crevice of some marine cliff it has
merely to remain quiet, allowing its tendrils to sway about, moved by the
current, as are the surrounding weeds, and his diet, foraging about for their food,
become a prey for his larder.

To demonstrate their slowness of digestion, Couch remarks that " on one occasion
there were nearly three-quarters of a hundred herrings found in the stomach of
an angler, and so little change had they suffered, that they were sold by the
fishermen in the market without any suspicion in the buyer of the manner in
which they had been obtained." In another instance, twenty-one flounders and
a dory were similarly found and disposed of. Fishermen often open these fishes
to obtain the contents of their stomach.

Means of capture. Sometimes trawled, also taken by nets and baits. Pennant's
remark that the fishermen about Scarborough return them to the sea because
they devour dog-fishes, is repeated in the Zoologist (p. 3333) as also applicable
to the Bristol Channel. There is no doubt they are very destructive to
other fishes, while considering the wonderful number of eggs they deposit, but
the comparatively few young that are seen, they must be subject to some
wholesale destruction as fry, or else when in the ova state.

Breeding. In December, 1841, Thompson examined an example 4| feet in length :
it was a female with the ova, well-developed, computed to number 1,427,344,
each ovum was 1/32 part of an inch in diameter, and the total when weighed
were found to be 1 lb. 13 oz. avoirdupois. Baird 1. c. has recorded the spawn
of this fish resembling a floating sheet of mucus from sixty to one hundred feet
square. Valenciennes says of an example only two inches in length, that the pectoral
and ventral fins are very long, while the spine has more numerous and much
longer tentacles than the adult : and that some of the pectoral rays extend a good
distance beyond the membrane. Diiben obtained the young in Norway, but which
appeared to differ so from Valenciennes' account that he considered it new,
terming it L. eurypterus, the first dorsal spine terminating in a transverse
cylindrical knob, provided with cilia, and being scarcely above half the length of

PEDICULATL 77

the second spine. Risso states that the female attains to a larger size than does
the male.

Diseases. Mcintosh, 1. c. Fishes of St. Andrew's, observes tliat this fish is
" common off the West Sands and frequently captured in the salmon nets. One
of the specimens had acute pericarditis."

As food. Usually rejected in Great Britain, hut said by Willughby and
Donovan to have very delicate flesh, resembling that of a frog, and to be eaten
in some countries ; and Couch, that a private individual reports our angler to be
a delicious fish. Johnston says it was produced at a feast given to a king of
Thrace; and Parnell observes that "the flesh is considered good, particularly that
near the tail."

Habitat. This species is said to be seldom captured north of 60 north
latitude, and though rare on the coasts of Denmark and in the Baltic, it extends
southwards in the Atlantic as far as the Cape of Good Hope, and also throughout
the Mediterranean. It is frequent in Newfoundland,* and along the eastern
shores of North America to as far south as Cape Hatteras in North Carolina.

Although Low in his account of the Orkneys did not consider it to be common,
Baikie reported it as tolerably frequent both there and in the Shetland Isles.
It is taken all round the British coast, but largest in numbers towards the south,
and is numerous in Cornwall throughout the year, but most frequently observed
during fine weather in summer or autumn, at which time it approaches the shore.
It is common in the North Sea, and frequently met with off Banffshire (Edward),
in the Moray Firth (Harris), and the Firth of Forth (Parnell). Dr. Lowe
observes that it is not uncommon in Norfolk estuary, where it sometimes attains
a large size : but one taken in the Humber in May, 1845 (Zoologist, p. 1035),
was considered, owing to its supposed rarity, to be worth recording.

In Ireland it is common round the coast, but is said to seldom exceed four feet
in length. On the north-east coast the fishermen open them to ascertain the
contents of their stomachs, after which they are thrown overboard and become
washed ashore ; they reject them as food. On the south-west coast of Cork they
are detested, and as soon as taken the fishermen strike their heels into the
posterior part of the fishes' skulls, and then throw them overboard : not only do
they reject them as food but they rarely if ever open them.

This fish, although generally measuring up to 2| or 3 feet in length, may attain
to 6 or 7 feet. The example figured is about 11 inches long and from the south
coast.

Saxby, Zoologist, 1871, p. 2553.

78 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family, VIII TRACHINIDiE, Risso.

Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchiae present. Body more or
less elongated, posteriorly compressed. Eyes more or less lateral. Cleft of
mouth almost horizontal, lateral, or even nearly vertical. Some of the bones of
the head are usually armed : the suborbital ring of bones does not articulate with
the preopercle. Teeth in the jaws small and pointed, present or absent on the
vomer and palatines. One or two dorsal fins, the rays being generally con-
siderably more in number than the spines : anal similar to soft dorsal : no finlets.
Ventrals thoracic with one spine and five rays. Pectorals with or without
appendages. Body scaled or scaleless. Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric
appendages few.

Geographical distribution. Cosmopolitan, rarely of large size. The majority
are littoral forms, some entering freshwaters or rivers, while a few are present
among coral reefs. Although in some Genera, as Sillago, these fishes are rather
rapid in their movements, the majority included in this family are the reverse,
some being very inactive.

Genus I Trachinus, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchioz present. Body elongated and cylindrical,
with the cleft of the mouth very oblique. Eyes lateral, directed somewhat upwards
and outwards. Preorbital and preopercle serrated : opercle with a strong spine.
Villiform teeth in the javjs, on the vomer and palatine bones, none on the tongue.
Two dorsal fins, the first with five to seven spines : second dorsal and anal many rayed.
Ventrals jugular. The lower pectoral rays unbranched. Scales cycloid and very
small. Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages few.

The term Trachinus has been referred to several Greek derivations, but the
most simple is that it is a latinized corruption of dracoena (dpuxaiva) which is still
its Greek name, as well as signifying a dragon or serpent ; while its likewise
being called araneus, or a "spider" by the Latins also had reference to the
poisonous character of the wounds it inflicts. Two species frequent the British
coasts, the larger Trachinus draco, the smaller Trachinus vipera, the latter being
the more venomous. Ancients asserted that so dreaded were they even by their
finny neighbours that all gave place to the weever. Opinions have been much
divided respecting the seat of the virus or poison ; some, as Rutty, asserting that
such resided in "the fin near the neck which has five prickles which are the seat
of what is called its venom." Others have limited the poisoned wounds to such
as are inflicted by the opercular spines. But it has been shown* that both the
double grooved opercular spines and also those of the first dorsal fin are poison
organs, the latter of which besides being grooved, contains a cavity within the
substance of the spine where the poison would seem to be deposited prior to its
use, while means by which such could be ejected have not yet been discovered.
No specific poison-gland has been found, but it has been surmised that the virus
is a secretion or excretion from the mucous surface of the loose skin which covers
the spines, or its pulpy sheath, this substance would collect in the grooves, and
when penetrating a foreign body sufficiently deep would naturally be introduced
into the inflicted wound. Even the death of the fish does not appear to at once
arrest its virulence, as pricks from the spines of dead weevers have been observed
to occasion symptoms of poisoning. f

* Byerly, Proc. Liverpool Lit. and Phil. Soc. i, p. 156.

t On the poisonous nature of wounds caused by these fishes, see Schmidt, Nord. Med. Ark. vi,
No. 2, 1875.

TRACHINID^E. 79"

When sea bathing, the possibility of receiving wounds from these fishes may
not unfrequently be a subject for bathers to dread, especially should the coast be
a sandy or gravelly one, such being the favourite localities for the weever to-
reside in, and where it buries itself, leaving merely its head uncovered. Woe to
the unprotected foot that incautiously treads on one of these fishes, as when alarmed
they at once strike any foreign body with the spine with which their gill-cover is-
armed, directing their blows, as Pennant observes, with as much judgment as
fighting cocks. A few months since, remarks R. Couch (Zoologist, 1846, p. 1402),
I saw a Tracliinus draco which had just been caught, and as it lay at the bottom of
the boat I frequently threw some sea- water over it to keep it Living, and then
irritated it with a stick. But whichever part of the body I touched it unerringly
struck it with its spines, by bending the body and throwing its head back with a
rapid jerk.

In Banffshire* a man was wounded taking a large weever off a hook, and in
less than half-an-hour the whole of his hand was considerably swollen: the
swelling went on extending to the wrist, and the two middle fingers being more in
the line of the wound, were more swollen than the others. In about an hour the
hand had increased to twice its natural size. It was scarified by a surgeon, and
other means used, which arrested the progress of the attack ; the hand healed up
perfectly within a reasonable time. As a rule, the pain appears to subside in
about twelve hours, or as some fisherman imagine, the effects of the poison will
last until the tide returns to the Jsame height as it stood when the injury was
inflicted. But a sailor, having been wounded by what was supposed to be a
weever, his leg became painful and in the course of a few hours was much
swollen and inflamed, while many weeks elapsed before he was able to resume his
usual occupation.f

Wherever shrimps abound weever fishes are said to be present, and shrimpers
in dark nights have been known to be afraid of picking their captures out of their
nets fearing lest one of these fishes might be among them.

It is safest for bathers in localities where these fishes are found to take the
precaution of wearing bathing-slippers, because should they incautiously put a
foot upon a weever it may wound with the spines of the first dorsal fin, which it
can erect or depress at pleasure, or strike violently with its armed head. Great
pain is immediately experienced, and which rapidly spreads. Pliny and
Dioscorides advised that the body of the fish should be cut open and applied to
the wound, a process to which two objections may be fairly raised : first, the
necessity of capturing the fish, and secondly the improbability of any alleviation
following the employment of such a remedy. Paul of ^Egina's receipt would
hardly have much effect, it being to make the patient drink a light tisane
thickened by the brains of the culprit fish. Avicenna suggested a poultice of
leeks ; Rondelet, leaves of the lentiscus bruised ; while various animal and vegetable
substances soaked in vinegar or made into salves have been proposed. Cuvier
suggested as the most simple and surest cure to enlarge the wound caused by the
spine of one of these fishes. Fishermen occasionally recommend friction of the
part with sand, but surgeons have found that olive oil, to which opium has been
added, is most efficacious. At the mouth of the Tyne, where these fish are
numerous, Mr. Green observes (Science Gossip, 1873, p. 283) that shrimpers
generally carry a small bottle of sweet oil to apply in case they are stung.

Geographical distribution. From the coast of Scandinavia, through those of
Western Europe, the British Isles, and the Mediterranean ; also Madeira, and
along the western coast of Africa as far south as the Cape of Good Hope ; while
Kner recorded T. draco from Iquique in Peru.

1. Trachinus draco, Plate XXX.

Aptiicwi', Arist. viii, c. 13 ; iElian, ii, c. 50.

Araneus, Pliny, ix, c. 48. Draco marinus, Pliny, ix, c. 27 ; Salv. f. 71.
Draco, Rondel, x, c. 10, p. 300, c. fig. ; Aldrov. ii, c. 50. Draco marinus major,,

* Harris, Zoologist, 1854, p. 4260. f Briggs, Zoologist, 1854, July.

80 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Jonston, tit. iii, c. 3, punct. 2, p. 91, t. xxi, f. 2 ; Willughby, p. 288, t. S. 10, f. 1;
Ray, p. 91 ; Rutty, Co. Dublin, i, p. 358. Trachinus, No. 1, Artedi, Gen. p. 42 ;
Gronov. Zooph. p. 80, no. 274 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii, p. 235. Greater tceever,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 171, pi. xxix (Ed. 2) iii, p. 229, pi. xxxiiL

Trachinus draco, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 435 ; Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 19, no. 30 ;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1157 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 108, and Europ. Merid. iii, p. 260 ; De
la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 331 ; Martens, Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 429 ; Cuv.
and Val. iii, p. 238 ; Johnston, Fish. Berwickshire, Mag. Nat. Hist, vi, 1833,
p. 15 ; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 335 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 20, c. fig
(Ed. 2) i, p. 24 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 1 ; Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 13, t. iii, f . 1 ;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 270 ; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. Poiss. p. 370 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 13 ; Gron. ed. Gray, p. 46 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p.
233 ; Schlegel, De Dieren Neder. p. 37, pi. v, f . 5 ; Kner, Sitz. Ak. Wiss Wien,
1867, lvi, p. 717; Steindachner, Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 95; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 42 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 173.

Trachinus lineatus, Bl. Schn. p. 55, t. x ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 109, and Eur,
Merid. iii, p. 260.

Trachinus major, Donovan, Brit. Fish. v. pi. cvii ; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 214.

Trachinus armatus (Schlegel), Bleeker, Poissons de la cote de Guinee, p. 94.

Greater weever, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 43, pi. lxxiii.

B. vi, D. 5-6/29-31, P. 16, V. 1/5, A. 31, C. 12, L. 1. 78. Ccec. pyl. 6. Vert.
11/31.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 8, height of body 5 g to 6 in the total length.
Eye 5 to 5-| diameters in the length of the head, 3/4 of diameter from the end
of the snout, and 3/4 to one diameter apart, the upper portion of the globe of
the eye having an opaque eyelid continued on to it. Dorsal profile nearly
horizontal, that of the abdomen more convex ; body compressed. Cleft of mouth
very oblique, reaching to slightly behind the posterior edge of the orbit ; lower jaw
somewhat the longer. Two small spines at the anterior superior angle of the
orbit ; interorbital space rather concave. Four flat and badly marked spines on
the preopercle and which are sometimes absent, two being- on the lower limb, the
anterior of which points forwards. Opercular spine long', strong, and enveloped
in loose skin nearly to its end. Suprascapular a short flat plate (rough along its
edges) while the scapular is rather larger, but of a similar character. Teeth
villiform in jaws, vomer, palatines and pterygoid bones ; none on the tongue.
Fins second and third spines of the first dorsal the longest, the membrane from
the last spine is continued almost to the base of the first ray of the second dorsal.
Lower six pectoral rays unbranched, or with the divisions very indistinct.
Caudal slightly emarginate, almost square. Scales cycloid and in oblique lines
passing down the body, some also on the sides of the head. Lateral-line passing
along the upper fourth of the body. Vent beneath the vertical from the last
dorsal spine. Colours generally gray or yellow, being darkest along the back :
brown or bright yellow lines pass down the body in the direction of the rows of
scales, decreasing in vividness as they descend ; while the upper surface and sides
of the head are reticulated or spotted with brown or gray, and occasionally with
blue lines ; some yellow- stripes along the gill covers. First dorsal fin black in its
upper three-fourths, sometimes nearly entirely so. The other fins yellowish, their
outer edges stained darkest, while the posterior margin of the caudal is nearly
clack and some dark reticulations exist on the fin. Old examples are less
vividly marked than the smaller ones, while the colours rapidly fade after death.

Names. The term tveever is stated to be a corruption of the French La vive
which this fish was named, due to its existing a long time after removal from the
"water, but Yarrell referred it to the Anglo-Saxon wivere " a serpent," the wivern
being the heraldic dragon. In fact Rondelet considered it to be the veritable draco
of the ancient naturalists. Locally known in Sussex as sea-cat : also as cat-fish and
sting-bull. The Sand-eel-bill of Ayrshire, so much dreaded by the fisherman there,
is probably this fish. Mor wiber fawr, Welsh. Be Pieterman, Dutch.

Habits. It swims near the ground, burrowing in the sand, as already de-

trachinim:. 81.

scribed, and though it may be left uncovered by an ebbing title, it is highly
retentive of life. It lives on the fry of other fishes or small animals, and remains
on our coasts throughout the year. Coach states that he has known the greater
weever taken in a net floating over 35 fathoms of water, and when several have
been thus caught, it has always been of an early morning east of the nets, as if
they thus mounted aloft only in the darkness of the night. Prom the inside of
one example, two gobies and a sand launce were taken, from another a squid, Loligo
media, 5 inches in length. In the Westminster Aquarium these fishes do not
show any propensity to conceal themselves under the sand, a proceeding said
to be more in vogue with Trachinus vipera.

Means of capture. Sometimes taken by tho trawl, in sprat or shrimp nets,
or else by a baited hook attached to a deep sea line. It is most commonly
captured during summer and autumn.

Breeding. On the continent of Europe these fish approach the shore in
large numbers in the month of June for the purpose of depositing their ova.
They doubtless choose the same time in this country, and Couch mentions an
example 3/4 of an inch long having been captured in August by a drift net.

As food. This form, not T. vipera, are sold in Whiteehapel as food, and are
said to be known as Spitalfield weavers : they are esteemed in France not only
because they can be conveyed long distances alive, but likewise owing to the
considerable time they remain fresh after death. A police regulation existed at
Boulogne that they might not be disposed of until their back fin had been
removed, in order to prevent persons being injured by it.

Habitat. From Scandinavia and Western Europe through the Mediterranean,
and it has been recorded from Madeira, New Guinea, and on the Western
coast of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope, also from Peru.

In Britain it is by no means uncommon along the coasts, especially on the
west, decreasing in numbers towards the north. At St. Andrew's it is frequent
on the west sands after storms (McAndrew) : it is occasionally found in
Banffshire according to Edward, however in the Zoologist for 1857, p. 5834,
one is recorded as captured there the first week in October, and the writer states
that the last taken previously was in 1810.

In Ireland Andrews records it from Ventry Bay, but it has not been found
in the north, in fact Thompson did not believe in its occurrence there.

The example figured is 12 inches long, and was sent alive from Brighton to
the Westminster Aquarium. It attains to at least 17 inches in length.

2. Trachinus vipera, Plate XXXI.

Otterpilce, Willughby, i, p. 289. Araneus minor, Ray, p. 92; Duhamel,
Peches, ii, p. 135, pi. 1. fig. 2. Trachinus, var. Gronov. Mus. Ich. i, p. 42. Draco
minor, Jonston, Pise. t. iii, c. 3, punct. 2, p. 92, t. xxi, f. 3. Draco marinus,
Borlase, Nat. Hist. Cornwall, p. 270, pi. xxvi, f. 3. Common weever, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 169, pi. xxviii (Ed. 2) iii, p. 226, pi. xxxii.

Trachinus draco, Bloch, t. lxi ; Bonaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 45, pi. xxviii, f. 98 ;
Bl. Schn. p. 55 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. xxiii ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 89 ;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 108, and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 260; Flem. Brit. An. p. 213.

Trachinus vividus, Lacep. Hist. Nat. Poiss. ii, p. 354.

Trachinus vipera, Cuv. and Val. iii, p. 254; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p.
12 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 25, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 29 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 7
Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 336 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838. i, p
170; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 13; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. xv
Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 36 ; Schlegel, De Dieren Neder. p. 40, pi
v, f . 6 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 70; Giinther, Catal ii, p. 236
Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 95; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrews, p. 173.

Trachinus horridus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 46.

Viper weever, Couch, Fishes of Brit. Isles, ii, p. 48, pi. lxxiv.

B. vi, D. 6/21-24, P. 14, V. 1/5, A. 25-26, C. 12, L. 1. 65, Co?c. pyl. 6, Vert.
10/25.

6

82 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Length of head, Sh to 3 J, of caudal fin 6^ to Gi, height of body 4^ to 5 in
the total length. Eye diameter 4f in the length of the head, 1/2 to 2/3 of a
diameter from the end of the snout, and 1/2 a diameter apart. Very similar to
T. draco, but has no spines above the orbit. Interorbital space concave. Two
sharp and forwardly directed spines below the angle of the preopercle. Oper-
cular spine rather long, strong, and straight. The maxilla reaches to beyond the
vertical from the hind edge of the orbit. A row of small papillae along the upper
edge of the lower lip. Teeth villiform in jaws, vomer, palatines, and pterygoid
bones, none on the tongue. Fins second and third spines of the first dorsal fin
the longest. Lower five or six pectoral rays unbranched, or with the divisions
very indistinct. Caudal very slightly emarginate. Scales scarcely any on ihe
head. Colours back gray, becoming paler towards the abdomen, where it is
tinged with yellow. Several narrow longitudinal irregular gray lines pass along
the back, and are continued on to the head, which may also be spotted with
black. First dorsal fin black, Avith some narrow white lines posteriorly. Fins
yellowish. Caudal yellow, with a dark base, and a wide black band along its
posterior margin.

Names. Little- or lesser-tveever : sting-fish. Locally termed adder-pike :
black-fin : otter-pike. Mor wiber, Welsh. Stangster or Stang, Celtic, Moray Firth
(Gordon). Bishoped or stung by a bishop, one of these fish, Cornwall. Stony -
cobbler, Youghal (Ball) (sec poison pate, p. 50, ante). Be Kleine Peterman, Dutch.
Habits. This species is rather more active and much more venomous than
T. draco.* Dr. Lowe, in his Fauna of Norfolk, while quoting Sir J. Browne's list,
and his assertion that " it has a short, small prickly fin along the back which
often venomously pricketh the hands of fishermen," combats the idea, contending
that although he has watched them carefully he could only observe that they
made sudden bounds with their fins extended, as do many other species.

Means of capture. Sometimes taken in sprat nets, or by baits when small
hooks are used. Ogilby observes that it is said to take a fly when towed after a
boat.

Breeding. In spring.

As food. It is stated to be exceedingly good meat (Pennant), and they are
taken in great numbers in Holland.

Habitat. From the North Sea and British coasts alono- those of France and
Spain to the Mediterranean ; while two bad specimens of fish from the Seychelles
existed in the British Museum which the curator has referred to this species.

Common on the English coast, in some places being more abundant than the
T. draco : they do not appear to be quite so frequent in Scotland. Edward found
them the most numerous- of the two in Banffshire, and Baikie (Zool. 1853)
records a couple from the Orkneys and one from Kirkwall Bay. In Ireland they
are most common along the eastern and southern shores, but are present from
the north to the south, Ball states them to be very abundant at Youghal.

Ogilby records as a very unusual sized example, one 6^- inches in length,
taken at Portrnsh, in the country of Antrim, where they are not uncommon
(Zoologist, 1876, p. 4753).

The example, figured life size, was taken at Weston- super-mare in a shrimp
net.

* See a paper on the stinging properties of this fish, Allnmn, Ann. Nat. Hist., Nov. 1840.

SCOMBRI MJ. 83

Family, IX SCOMBPJDyE, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchiae present. Body oblong or
slightly elongated and rather compressed. Gill-openings wide: eyes lateral.
The infraorbital bones do not articulate with the preopercle. Teeth present in
the jaws, but may be absent from the palate. Two dorsal fins, the first being
distinct from the soft, which has more rays than the first has spines: flnlets
present or absent : ventrals thoracic. Sides of the tail sometimes keeled. Scales,
when present, small. Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages
numerous, in moderate numbers, or dendritical.

Fishes of the Mackerel family are pelagic forms, readily distinguishable by
their elegant shapes and brilliant colours, while they are mostly highly prized fur
the table. Carnivorous and exceedingly active, their shapes are well adapted to
enable them to glide rapidly through the water: while to obviate the least
impediment, we even find in some depressions for the reception of the pectoral
fins.

Genus I. Scomber, Artedi.

Cordylus, Gray.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobrancMa? present. Body rather elongated, and
compressed. Eyes with adipose lids. Cleft of mouth deep. Small and deciduous
teeth in, the jaws : similar ones present or absent on the vomer and palatine hones.
Two dorsal fins, the first spinous and separated by an interspace from, the second,
behind which latter and also posterior to the anal fin are five or six finlets : fewer
spines in the first dorsal fin than there are rays in the second dorsal or in the anal:
ventrals thoracic. A slight keel along either side of the root of each lobe of the
caudal fin. Scales small. Air-bladder, when present, simple. Pyloric appendages
mimerous.

Geographical distribution. These fishes have a very extensive range, being
found in most temperate and tropical seas of both Hemispheres, but do not
appear to have been received from the American shores of the South Atlantic
Ocean. Only two distinct species have as yet been recorded from the British

Isles.

1. Scomber scomber, Plate XXXII and XXXIII.

^Kopflpog, Arist. vi, c. 17, viii, c. 12 and 13, ix, c. 2 ; iElian, xiv, c. 1 ; Athen.
iii, 112, vii, 321 ; Oppian, Halieut, i, fol. 108, 109.

Scomber, Ovid, Halieut. v, 94 ; Pliny, ix, c. 15, xxxi, c. 8, xxxii, c. 11 ;
Martial, iii, Ep. 2,.iv, Ep. 86, xiii, Ep. 1 ; Rondel, viii, c. 7, p. 234, c. fig. ; Salvian.
p. 241, f. 239 b. 241, 242 ; Gesner, fol. 57 ; Schonev. p. 66 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 53, p.
270 ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, tit. iii, c. 3, punct. 6, p. 95, t. xxi, fig. 10 ;
Willughby, p. 181, t. M. 3; Ray, p. 58 ; Rutty, p. 356; Strom, Sond, ii, p. 295.
Scomber, No. 1, Artedi, Genera, p. 30, Synon. 48, Species, p. 68. Scomber, sp.
Gronov. Zooph. p. 93, No. 304. Pelamys, sp. Klein, MSS. v, p. 12, No. v, t. iv,
f. 1 ; Duhamel, Peches, sect, vii, pi. 1, f. 1 ; Cetti, Hist. Nat. Sard, iii, p. 190.
Mackrel, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 264, pi. Ii (Ed. 2) iii, p. 357, pi. Ixii.
The mackerel, Low, Fauna Oread, p. 218.

Scomber scomber (or scombrus) Linn. Sys. i, p. 492 ; Briinn. p. 68 ; Bloch, t.
liv ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1328 : Bl. Schn. p. 24 ; Lacep. iii, p. 24 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p.
577, pi. lxxxiv ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, v, pi. exx ; Turton, p. 100 ; Pallas, Zoogr.
Russ. Asiat. iii, p. 215 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 170 and Europ. Merid. iii, p. 412 ;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 432 ; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 6 ; Fries och Ekst.

6*

84 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Skand. Fisk. p. 128, t. xxix ; Jenyns, Man. p. 360 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 121, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 137 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 193; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1837, i, p. 409; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 50; Johnston, Berwick.
Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 171 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 238 ; Cuvier, Regne Anim.
111. Poiss. p. 29 ; Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 391 ; White, Catal.
Brit. Fish. p. 29 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 92 ; Gimther, Catal. ii, p.
357 ; Schlegel, De Dieren Nederland, p. 5, pi. v, f. 1 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 1 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 43 ; A. Malm, CEfv. Ak. Forh. 1876, pi. v ;
Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 173; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan. 1879, p. 12.

Scomber vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 217.

Scomber verncdis, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 423 ;
Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 48; Storer, Fish. Mass. p, 41 ; De Kay, New York Fauna,
Fish, p, 101, pi. xii, f. 34 ; Richards., Faun. Bor. Amer. Fish. p. 80.

Cordyhis scombrus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 163.

MaJcarel and Dotted Makarel, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 67 y 81, pi. lxxix
and lxxxi, fig. 1.

Scomber punctatus, Couch, .Zoologist, 1849, p. xxix, append, c. fig. and Pen-
zance, Nat. Hist. Soc. 184H, pi. iii, f. 1 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 30 ; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes (Ed. 3) ii, p. 207, c. fig. (variety).

Scribbled mackarel, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 84, pi. lxxxi, fig. 2 and ?
pi. lxxx, fig. 2 (variety).

B. vii, D. H-14/ TTT 1 TT + Y, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. 1/^ T + V, C. 19, Vert. 14/17.

Length of head 4i to 4-*-, of caudal fin 6, of pectoral fin 9-|, height of body
54; to 63-, in the total length. Eye with broad adipose lids, the posterior
extending to over the hind third of the pupil and inferiorly being covered by the
anterior which does not reach to the iris, and is attached by its lower edge to the
sub-orbitals : diameter of eye 1/5 to 1/6 of the length of the head : 1^ diameters
apart : the length of the snout being equal to about one-third of that of the
entire head. Jaws of almost the same length anteriorly : the maxilla, which is
covered by the suborbital, reaches to beneath the middle of the orbit. Posterior
limb of preoporcle very oblique, causing the angle to appear somewhat produced.
Teeth in a single row of rather sharp ones in the jaws, in a deciduous patch on
either side of the vomer, and in a single or double row on the palatines : a central
row of teeth at the base of the tongue. Fins dorsal commences at the
beginning of the second third of the length of the body : spines weak, the second
and third the longest, from thence they decrease to the last. Second dorsal low,
and similar to the anal. Pectoral not quite half as long as the head : ventral one-
fourth shorter than the pectoral. A single, short, pre-anal spine between the
vent and the commencement of the anal fin. Caudal deeply forked. Scales
minute, about twenty-one rows between the lateral-line and base of the
first dorsal fin : along the sides and lower surface of the abdomen, they become
nearly indistinguishable. Several rows below the eyes passing across the cheek.
Lateral-line nearly straight. A keel along either side of the root of each lobe of
the caudal fin. Air-bladder absent. Coecal appendages numerous. Colours the
upper third of the body is of a beautiful green shot with blue, while the sides
and abdomen are radiant with gold, purple, and silvery shades. About thirty-five
V-shaped bands pass downwards from the back and terminate just below or on
the lateral-line : a dark stripe, sometimes interrupted, goes from the base of the
pectoral fin along the side a little distance below the lateral-line. A light yellow
colour behind the eye. Fins dark, and generally with a black white-edged outer
line. Or the body to just below the lateral-line, may be covered with small
black spots or scribbled markings.

Donovan asserted that the males have straight transverse stripes, and the
females undulated ones, the correctness of which I have been unable to verify.
It has likewise been observed that the male has a more slender form and an
elongated gill- cover.

Varieties. The European forms of Scomber have been divided into (1) those
possessing an air-bladder, and (2) such as are deficient in this organ. Scomber

SCOMBRID^E. 85

pneumafuphonis and S. colias, winch may be varieties of a single species, are both
provided with an air-bladder: whereas those which are without it have been
described as Scomber scomber, Linn. S. punctatus and 8. scriptus, Conch. On
April 21st, 1880, I received from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, an example (figured
plate xxxiii) of S. punctatus, a female 14 inches in length, with the ova not quite
mature. D. 13/ T l T +v,_ P. 21, V. 1/5, A. l/ T V+v, C. 17. Its proportions are
as in 8. scomber and it has no air-bladder, in fact it is a variety in colour of the
common species. I have not obtained 8. scriptus, bat it appears to be another
variation in markings of the common mackerel, like which it is destitute of an
air-bladder. Couch, plate lxxx, below the Spanish mackerel, 8. colias, has
figured what appears to be another variation in colour, and in which the eye
was similar in size to 8. scomber, while it also had no air-bladder. Mr. Dunn
has drawn attention to the spotted and scribbled varieties being seldom if ever
seen in the winter or spring. Thej" come with the summer shoals.

Mr. Cornish observed that on May 14th, 1874, he came in the steamer from
Scilly, bringing mackerel over for the London market, they were washed on
board and " the result of my inspection is a strong opinion, that so far as outward
differences are concerned, the distinction between the common mackerel, Scomber
scomber, the dotted mackerel, S. punctatus, Couch, and the scribbled mackerel,
8. scriptus, cannot be maintained, and I should include the Spanish mackerel,
8. colias, in the list but for its size. In the lot which I watched, from 12,000 to
15,000 fish, there w T ere fish of every grade of mai'king, and a large percentage
having the sharp pointed head attributed by Couch to the Spanish mackerel.
I have no doubt that I could have picked out four fish, each of which should
answer precisely to the description of one of the four fish mentioned above, and
differing each largely from the other three : but I could have supplied the gaps
between them with variety after variety, until no one should be able to say where
one species began and the other ended."* Mr. Dunn mentions some red-finned
varieties which the Mevagissey fishermen carefully look for, as when they appear
quantities of fish are usually off the coast.

Names. Mackerel, formerly spelt macquerelle. Rionnacli, pronounced ronach,
Celtic, in Moray Firth (Gordon), shiners, young off North Coast. Le Maquereau
commun, French. Makreel, Dutch. The term mackerel has rather improbably
been supposed to have been derived from macularius or spotted.

Habits. Mackerel are a gregarious wandering form of pelagic fishes which
remain off our coasts throughout the year, and at certain seasons approach the
shores in countless multitudes, either prior to, during, or after breeding : or else for
predaceous purposes. Occasionally they forsake their usual haimts, thus from
May to July they were formerly abundant at Yarmouth and Lowestoft, whereas
now numbers come in with the herriners, havinsr deferred their advent to a later
period in the season ; or they may even antedate their usual appearance, as will
be remarked upon. Formerly, they were supposed to undertake long migrations
annually from the north towards the south at one season and subsequently the
reverse. Lacepede, on the authority of Admiral Pleville-Lepley, actually asserted
that in some small and almost land-locked bays off Greenland, where the water is
always clear and the bottom consists of soft mud, myriads of mackerel might be
seen at the beginning of spring, with their heads inserted several inches into the
mud, and their tails vertically elevated. He continued that in this manner and
in a state of torpor they passed the winter, while during the first fifteen or twenty
days after their reappearance they were aftected by a sort of blindness and could
be easily netted, but that subsequently they had to be captured by means of
hooks and baits !

It is during the winter months or in the early period of the year, as January
or February, that these fish usually commence to move from the deeper portions
of the Atlantic towards the British coast, and in May or June large shoals of
spawning fish appear to the south west of the Scilly Isles, some portion passing
towards the Bristol or St. George's Channels, or Ireland in a north or north-

* Zoologist, 1874, p. 4037.

86 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

easterly direction, while the largest proportion go up the English Channel along
the south coast of Britain. Mr. Dunn observes that they are seldom seen further
up the English Channel than the Lizard off the British coast and Brittany off the
French shores. The shoals which pass up the St. George's Channel rarely
extending beyond Cork. Couch stated that in the early movement the sexes are
often much divided, the males usually preceding the females in their migrations.
But besides these large assemblages of breeding fishes there are shoals of mostly
smaller ones which appear off the south coast according to the character of the
season, increasing or lessening their distance from the shore as the temperature
falls or rises. In mild seasons they are mostly caught first at Poi-tsmouth, as in
January or February, but Plymouth on an average is considered the earliest place
to which they resort, and where they are taken from ten to thirty miles from land.
On the Hampshire and Sussex coasts they are first taken in March, or sometimes
even in February, while off Norfolk the greatest fisheries are in May and June.
They also arrive in the Isle of Man in June. In the Moray Firth they appear
in immense shoals about August (Gordon) and in the Orkneys during the last
week in July (Low.) On January 28th, 1880, they appeared off Penzance,
whereas the end of February is usually the time at which they may be expected :
they extend their stay into June. The same phenomenon occurred further to
the north, thus at Christiania some very fine ones were taken in April, although
their usual time of arrival off the northern coast of Norway is not before the
advent of warmer weather.

As already remai-ked, they may arrive long prior to their usual period, thus
Couch observes that in 1818, 15,000 were taken at Mevagissey between
February 1st and 12th : in 1842, two boats brought 18,000 into Plymouth, while in
1843, in the first week in February, from 20,000 to 30,000 were captured each
night.

The period at which the arrival of these fish may be expected at any particular
locality may be somewhat accurately computed, by ascertaining at what time they
normally appear off certain points, and how long an interval generally occurs
between their arrival at one place and their subsequent appearance at a more
distant locality. The number of days they take in migrating from place to place
is generally the same in different years.

The character of the season or the weather does not appear to be the only
agent by which these fishes early migrations are ruled. But it has been
remarked that a particular temperature or direction of wind has some connection
with their swimming nearer to the surface or deeper in the water. Mr. Cornish
(Zoologist, 1876, p. 4767) has remarked that about once in every eight or ten
years they swarm into Mount's Bay : thus in August and September, 1875, at
high water, they could be bailed out in buckets at the pier head.

In the spring the average size captured is smaller than it becomes during the
autumnal and winter months, owing to some of the shoals being partly or entirely
composed of young fish. Their course seems to be very erratic, rising to the
surface and approaching the shore, or remaining at the bottom in deep water.
But as the summer advances and their food enters sandy bays, then these fish
follow and appear to have become exceedingly acti\ e. By the end of September
or October, having spawned, the old ones retire to the Atlantic, in which
migration they appear to be often accompanied by those which were hatched
early in the season. Sometimes the half-grown fish retiring into deep water at
the end of the year seem to be interrupted in their course, which causes them
to remain off the coast during the winter months.

Their food is still a subject in which much remains to be investigated.
Doubtless they prey upon members of the herring family and the fry of such
forms as come in their way. Thus when the mackerel midge, which is the
young of the Rockling, Motella, becomes abundant about the middle of May,
these fishes congregate to feed upon them. At Mevagissey, Mr. Dunn has
remarked that some small jelly-fishes (Medusae ?) about the size of a split pea,
and of a dark green colour, appear after heavy rains, at night they are luminous.
Mackerel prey upon them. Occasionally quantities of young of the dwarf

scombrim:. 87

swimming crabs, Portunus pusill us, are taken among these fish, and upon which
they are believed to have been feeding. They also feed upon minute creatures
said to resemble sand-hoppers, which abound about February. In May, 1880,
I opened a number of these fishes, from the south coast, and all had their
stomachs full of ova on which they had evidently gorged themselves.

Mr. Smith* observes upon having kept some of these pelagic fish from June
or July in the previous year in an aquarium, the size of which was eight feet by
six, and in August two were yet alive. Still they are difficult to retain in
confinement owing to their impatience of restriction and they injure themselves
by dashing about, besides being very susceptible to atmospheric vicissitudes.
Those captured earlier in the season in drift nets are not the best for this
pui'pose, because coming from deeper Water they are liable to injury while being
meshed in the nets, or subsequently when being conveyed ashore : whereas
later on they migrate into shallower places where seines are employed. The
presence of fellow-captives of the same species which have been some time in
confinement in the aquarium is found to exercise a great controlling power on
the new comers, which for some time should be kept in the dark.

Pontoppidan relates how a Norwegian snilor was destroyed by a shoal of
mackerel who surrounded him while bathing, carried him out to sea, and
managed, while pushing him along, to so bite and nibble at their victim that his
friends, with all their exertions, were scarcely able to get him alive into their boat,
where he soon expired from exhaustion and loss of blood.

yElian records how fishermen trained mackerel to act the character of
decoys to shoals of their fellows whom they inveigled into their owners' nets : not
content with this, he informs his readers that this faculty was continued to the
descendant of their decoy fish for several generations.

Modes of capture. As the January fish obtain a very high price, the fishermen
seek the shoals in the earliest time of the year.f In the spring the Cornish
boats proceed eastward for mackerel fishing but they net towards the west, thus
meeting the shoals. The distance the boats proceed up the English Channel
varies in different seasons, while the earliest fish may be expected furthest out to
sea. The quantities captured are liable to great variations in different years,
several good harvests may follow one after another, or the reverse may occur;
likewise one set of boats may be making large catches while neighbouring ones
are scarcely securing a fish. I have already alluded to there being two classes of
mackerel : viz., the enormous May and June shoals that come for spawning and
consist of large fish : and the more erratic or in-shore ones that do not appear to
keep so well to stated times : the modes of capture of these two classes varies.
The nets employed in the English Channel are for the in-shore or smaller forms,
the mesh of which before being: tanned averages from 27 to 28 half meshes to a
yard : but those employed at the entrance of the channel for the spawning shoals
average untanned from 21 to 22 half meshes to a vard.

Early in the spring numerous fishing boats, manned with from five to eight
men each, assemble in Plymouth preparatory to the mackerel season, and for
the purpose of trying their fortune in the English Channel with drift nets,
which are shot of an evening and usually lifted after two or three hours, but shot
again in the very early morning, the best time for carrying on this occupation
having been found to be when daylight passes into darkness, or the night into
the morning. The fishermen believe that at the commencement of the season
the vision of these fishes is not so good as it becomes later on, when, however,
it may be materially assisted by lighter days and moonlight nights. It has
been remarked that drift nets are less productive during bright moonlight than
when the nights are darker, as the fish are believed to perceive and avoid the
net suspended for their capture. In darker weather, however, the mackerel force

* Zoologist, 1867, p. 017.

t On April 24th, 1S80, a somewhat curious festival was celebrated on the Brixton beach
The fishing fleet being about to start in search of mackerel, the annual custom of holding what is
termed a " bending in " was observed, the chief feature being to keep open house around the boats
where bread and cheese is gratuitously given to everyone who asks for it. Anglers' Note book, p. 129

88 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

their heads through the meshes beyond their gill openings which precludes their
being again retracted. The modes of capture must vary with local circumstances
but generally during the spring and autumn drift* nets only are employed,
whereas in the summer, as towards the end of May in Cornwall, these fishes come
nearer inland and seines are likewise used. The two may be also in operation at the
same time, thus in the first week of July, 1880, both drift and seine fishermen
were making large captures off the Cornish coast. At this period a man termed a
huer is appointed to keep a look out for the appearance of the shoals of these
fishes : on perceiving which, he signals to the fishermen who at once depart in the
direction of the anticipated captures. Mr. R. Couch remarked in the Zoologist
that some of the fishermen believe "that if from any cause the eastward migrations
pass up mid-channel, the spring fish first appear on the eastern fishing grounds
about Brighton, and spawn before they get so far west as the Cornish or Devonshire
coasts : hence the eastern fishery is profitable while the western is a failure. If,
on the contrary, they pass up at short distances from the shore, the eastern
fishery is a failure and their boats come westwards to take the fish." (p. 1410.)
The failure of the fishery, therefore, frequently depends upon the fishermen
looking for the fish in a wrong direction, and thus they pass unnoticed. They do
not rise to the surface during spring and autumn as they do in summer, so their
presence has to be detected by nets and fishing, sometimes there are few near
shore while they are abundant in the deep water. In September and October
mackerel mostly retire to deeper waters, or separate into small shoals, rendering
this mode of fishing useless. This, however, is very liable to vary, thus during
the last week in November, 1880, drift nets were still being employed at Penzance
and took large, fat, and well-flavoured mackerel by thousands a night, although
usually catches of this sort do not occur after the beginning of June or before the
end of February. Small mackerel are often captured until Christmas (Cornish). f

At Rye there is a large mackerel fishery, where fixed nets termed " kettle
nets " are employed, each of which is a little over half-a-mile in length : the
poles to which they are attached being twelve feet high, while each contains three
chambers or bights. They commence being used on April 14th, and are con-
tinued until the end of November.

Droves of sea birds fl}"ing above and every now and then swooping down upon
the fish, often give a good indication of where they are : the circling, screaming
birds acting as detectives.

When mackerel are in small and divided companies, netting could not be
remunerative, but hand-lining might be, and it has been observed that more
proportionate success generally attends the employment of several lines used
together, while several hooks are best on one line. Those captured by hooks and
lines generally command a better price in the market than such as have been
netted. Although these fish may be taken from a boat at anchor, the favourite
time for fishing for mackerel with a bait is when there is a little ripple on the
sea, and a light gale is blowing, termed a " mackerel breeze " by fisheimien, which
takes the boat along at a fair speed under sail, while should the sky be gloomy,
so much the better. The plan adopted is termed whiffing, railing, trailing, or
jiJiinniieting. Hand-lining may be carried on at any time during the day, as they
appear to feed at all hours, but best in the morning and evening. The line is
short but heavily weighted to a cone-shaped leaden plummet : a small line, termed
the snood or snoozing, is attached to near the end of the leaded line on one side
and terminates in the hook at the other : the bait or lask is wedge-shaped, the
thick end being on the hook, while it should take on an undulating motion to
resemble a fish.

Baits. When whiffing or hand-lining for these fishes, natural baits may be
employed, as a slip from the side of another mackerel's tail termed a lask, a
cuttle fish, a thin rind of pork, or mud-worms. But besides the foregoing, any

* For a description of the various kinds of nets and how employed, see Introduction.

t The pilchard season of 1879 ran into January. 1880: while the mackerel season of 1880
commenced in the latter part of January, 1880 (T. Cornish).

SCOMBRlDiE. 89

glistening substance will attract them, as a pearl button, or Hoarder's silver spinner
which is an imitation tish fastened on to a silvered plate of copper, and mounted
so as to spin freely on a piece of wire. A slip of white kid or a piece of red
cloth have likewise been used with good effect ; or stranger still, Ball found about
two inches of the stem of a tobacco pipe, put on the line down to the hook, a
novel and most successful bait. Fishermen also believe they can entice mackerel
from the bottom by various eatable substances used when the boat is at anchor,
as salted pilchards which, having become rancid, are beaten to a pulp and hung
over the side of the boat in a basket from which little bits drop.

French mackerel vessels are of a larger capacity than those employed by
British fishermen, carry a greater number of hands, and are frequently aided
by steam power. The French seek the large shoals of spawning fish, and it is
said not to be uncommon for one vessel to obtain upw r ards of 1000 worth of fish
in a single season (while but few English boats are upwards of 40 tons burden,
and Mr. Dunn estimates that 250 would be a very good return for the best of
them). They takefish for salting, and consequently do not require to repair
so rapidly to port. The captures are preserved on board and packed in the
hold, and when the latter is full they return to France.*

Having now described the modes employed for capturing these fish, a few
details are desirable to show their value when brought to market. Yarrell
furnishes some interesting figures respecting what obtained dui-ing the first
quarter of the present century. In May, 1807, the first Brighton boat-load sold
at Billingsgate at forty guineas a hundred, or seven shillings each, computing six
score to a hundred : this was the highest price ever reached in that market.
The next boat- load produced but thirteen guineas a hundred. In 1808 mackerel
became so plentiful in Dover that they were disposed of at sixty for a shilling :
while in June the same year at Brighton, a net was so completely filled by them,
that it was impossible to di*ag it ashore : the fish and net in the end sank together.
In 1821, the value of the catches of sixteen Lowestoft boats on the 30th of June,
amounted to 5252. In 1823, 1,420,000 of these fishes were taken at Yarmouth.
In 1844, during October, the Mount's Bay fishermen took 1,400,000, which
sold for about 4000. In May, 1868, 300,000 were netted one morning near the
Scilly Isles. June, 1869, 10,000 a fortnight were secured at Weymouth, an event
which had not occurred for thirty years. Couch gives the average price of
mackerel for seven years as from 6 to 9 per thousand : and the numbers
taken in a boat of rather less than the average size with drift nets, from 15,000
to 24,000. But it sometimes occurs that more than these may be taken in a
single night ; in fact, at Penzance drift nets have frequently brought 100 tons in
a single night in May.

Breeding. In the spring of the year the roe of the mackerel may be observed
to be growing very fast, and in the south coast of Britain it seems to be shed
about May or June. Sars remarks that it is deposited at some leagues from the
shore and at the very surface of the waves, where a great quantity of these fishes
may often be met with, engaged in spawning. The ova of these fishes shed in
the Brighton Aquarium, has likewise been observed to float. A low temperature
exercises great influence in postponing breeding, and fish in roe are occasionally
seen even in winter. Harmer found 546,681 ova in a female 18 oz. weight,
430,800 in a second of 20 oz. weight, and 454,961 in a third of similar size, all
having been captured in the month of June : while Bloch counted 540,000 in one
he examined. Mackerel quickly recover from the effects of spawning.

Although this fish is generally a very rapid grower, such must greatly depend
on whether suitable food abounds, or the reverse. At Mevagissey, where spawning
occurs in May or June, young about three inches long, are plentiful in the bays
about August and September, leaving for the deep sea in November, when they
are from 6 to 7 inches in length, and reappearing the following June about 8 or 9

* Large quantities of mackerel are now imported in ice from Norway, commencing in the
spring and continuing until the end of July.

90 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

inches long (Dunn). In fact, the young' at the commencement of winter are
small, and their growth is slow up to the following spring.

Hermaphrodites . Couch observed upon having noticed these in the form of a
lobe of roe lying between the usual pair of lobes of milt: while A. Malm like-
wise describes and figures such.

Diseases. The nipper crab, Polybius Hensloivii, which swims near the surface,
has been known to kill mackerel. The Myxine, a form of sea lamprey, likewise
bores into its flesh. Mr. Dunn was good enough to send me an example of a
fish louse, Rocinela dannoniensis, which he took off a mackerel at Mevagissey, in
September, 1879. He observed that some hundreds have been observed on these
fish, and all he noticed or heard of were found clinging near the pectoral fin,
except one which was imbedded near the vent. When half a mackerel is used
as a bait, the lice will sometimes in a few minutes scoop out all the fish, leaving
nothing but the skeleton and the skin.

As food. Mackerel are much esteemed, the moderately sized more than the
very large ones, but they taint very rapidly, as well as lose flavour when kept.
Some prefer those captured during the autumn and winter months, while others
like such as are in roe taken in May and June or even July. Those marked with
a dark interrupted line along the side are said to be of inferior quality. Owing
to the rapidity with which these fish decompose in hot weather, and the
consequent deleterious results to consumers, vendors were permitted as early as
1698 to cry them through the streets of London on Sundays, an enactment
which does not seem to have ever been repealed. The employment of steam
carriers in the place of sailing vessels, and which take the captures from the
various boats and convey them rapidly to market, has proved a great gain to all
parties, and a boon to the general public. They are usually packed in boxes
containing- about fifty each for sending to market, ice being added. This fish
was much relished by the Romans, because its internals furnished the precious
garum, a sort of pickle which gave a high relish to their sauces, besides being
medicinally employed, and was said at one time to sell for a sum which would be
equivalent to 48 of our present money for two gallons of it.

Modes of cooking.- They may be boiled, and fennel or gooseberry sauce as
well as melted butter is sent to table with them : they may be stuffed with force-
meat and baked : or split open, the backbone removed, and the fish fried in lard :
they are likewise very good broiled whole or stewed with claret. Fillets of
mackerel may be fried, broiled, boiled, or stewed in wine.

Habitat. Extensively distributed in the northern and temperate seas of both
hemispheres, and as far south as the Canary Isles. In the Mediterranean the
fishery commences at the same time as in the north of Europe, or in the English
Channel, or even earlier. They are taken in the Gulf of Lyons from April until
August, and in Provence even in May, continuing sometimes until October. At
Nice they are said to abound during the spring, and at Genoa are known as April
fish. They extend their range into the Black Sea, and during the summer
numbers are present, while those of various sizes appear all to breed : they are
said not to be found in the Sea of Azof. These fish differ in size and taste not only
with the seasons, but also the localities they inhabit : we find that they are finest
in the English Channel. They are always few in the Baltic, although they
occasionally occur off the coast of Sweden, as in 1851, but they were small, it
taking about three to average one pound weight. Neither do they seem to be
.always esteemed, at least, in Amsterdam : and in the Mediterranean, as a rule,
they are dry and inferior in flavour. In the Western Hemisphere they extend
from Greenland to as far south as Cape Cod in Massachusets.

In the British Isles they are most abundant along the south coast, up the
eastern shores to Norfolk and Suffolk, and also along the western counties.
They appear off the Scottish coast late in the summer, as has been already alluded
to under the head of habits. Their presence is often detected by large flocks of
sea birds, which are swooping down and feeding on the fishes below them, and
show the fishermen where they may be found.

SCOMBRID^J. 91

In Ireland they are common round the coast, from Donegal and Antrim, down
the east and along the south to Kerry, but are not so abundant along the west
as along the east side of the island. Thompson observed in 1836 that in
Newcastle, county Down, they were only taken at the latter end of August,
while ten miles to the south they had appeared a month previously, this difference
being of annual occurrence. The best fishing on the north -east coast commences
about July. Rutty remarked that these fish arrive off Dublin in May, and
continue for three months.

The ordinary size of mackerel for the table is from 14 to 16 inches in length.
Buckland remarked that in the spring of 1879 he received one 18 inches long,
and which weighed 2 lb. 11 oz. Mr. Cornish recorded one from Penzance 18
inches long, and 2 lb. 8 oz. in weight (Zoologist, 1876, p. 4931). Yarrell mentions
one of 2h lb. taken at Poulton, in November, 1849, and an example 2 oz. more
caught off Hastings in 1856.

2. Scomber colias, Plate XXXIV.

KoXiac, Arist. Hist. Anim. v, 9, viii, 13, ix, 2; Athen. iii, 118, 120, vii, 321.

? Colias, Pliny, xxxii, c. 11 ; Belon. p. 202 ; Rondel, viii, c. 8, p. 235, c. fig. ;
Salv. f. 242 ; Gesner, Aquat. p. 256 ; Aldrov. Pise. p. 274; Jonston, lib. i, tit. iii,
c. 3, punct. 6, p. 97. t. xxi, f. 11 ; Willugh. Ich. p. 182. Colias RondeleUi, Ray,
p. 59.

Scomber colias, Gmel. Linn. p. 1329 ; Bl. Schn. p. 22 ; Lacep. iii, pp. 39, 40 ;
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 580; Turton, p. 100; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 171, and Europ.
Merid. iii, p. 413; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 39, pi. ccix ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 131, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 148 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 204 ; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 45 ;
De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish. p. 104, pi. xi, f. 33; Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1850,
p. 248 ; White, Cafcal. Brit. Fish. p. 30 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 361 ; Stemd. S. B.
Ak. Wien. lxxii, 1876, p. 81, and Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 2.

Scomber maculatus. Couch, Mag. Nat. Hist, v, p. 22, f. 8 (not Forster MSS.) ;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 361 ; White, Catal. p. 30 ; Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist, vii, p.
479, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 93.

Scomber diego, Ayres, Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sc. i, 1857, p. 92.

Spanish mackarel, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 78, pi. lxxx.

B. vii, D 7Mrf V-VI, P. 21, V. 1/5, A. J T +V-VI, C. 21.

Length of head 4 to 4^, of caudal fin 6 to 6, height of body 4| to 5-J- in
the total length. The thickness of the body equals about 2/3 of its height.
Eye diameter 3^ in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 1 ajDart. The posterior adipose eyelid passes over the hind quarter
of the pupil, and crossing the lower edge of the anterior lid is inserted into
the suborbital ring of bones : the anterior lid does not reach so far as the pupil.
Teeth in the jaws in a single row : fine ones on the vomer and palatines, but
none on the tongue. Fins first dorsal rather high, its longest spine equalling
the length of the interspace between the two dorsal fins. Pectoral about half as
long as the head. Scales those in the pectoral region are larger than the others
on the body, where although they form a species of corselet, it is not so distinct
as in some of the tunnies. Air-bladder present. Colours somewhat similar to
what are observed in the common mackerel, more especially in its spotted variety,
except that the lines which cross its back are usually less numerous. The dark
colour of the back is continued below the lateral-line, so as to include almost the
entire upper half of the body, while the abdomen has numerous large round or
vertical blotches irregularly dispersed over it. A black shoulder spot extends
to the base of the pectoral fin.

Varieties. Scomber pnenmato'phorus, De la Roche, Ann. Mus. 1809, t. xiii, p. 334,
Mem. p. 48 ; Cuv. and Yal. viii, p. 36 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger, p. 56 ; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 359, is considered by Steindachner, and other excellent observers, to
be a variety of this fish, which, if so, would possess from 7 to 10 dorsal spines
and 1 1 or 12 dorsal ravs. Personallv I have not sufficient materials to examine

92 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

this question, but the example of each variety in my collection have the numbers
recorded, otherwise the proportions of the two are very similar.

Names. Coly mackerel and Spanish mackerel, the first taken from its Latin
name, whereas the second is objectionable, this designation having been used
for another species. Ray remarks, " The tunny-fish or Spanish mackrell. Hunc
in Mari Gornubiam alluente captum Pensantice vidimus."

Habits. Couch states that this species is not so active as the common mackerel,
but is said to be equally voracious as a feeder. It comes irregularly off our coasts,
but at Marseilles it appears at spring time, and at Nice in numbers during May and
November.

As food. Mr. Dunn observes that its flesh is softer and it decomposes
more quickly than the common mackerel. It is found in Europe to be very
inferior to the Scomber scomber, from which it may at once be known by its much
larger eye : in fact, in the Mediterranean they are usually salted before being
eaten. In Spain salted colias is said to obtain a good market, but in no other
European country have they any considerable sale. On the other hand, De Kay
asserts that at New York "they are excellent eating." Therefore, like the Scomber
scomber, their taste may depend on locality.

Habitat. In Europe they are found in the Mediterranean, wanderers straggling
to the south coast of Great Britain. Lowe, 1. c, recorded that in April, 1844, the
market at Funchal, in Madeira, was plentifully supplied with these fishes for two
or three successive clays. They were said to have been brought from Porto Santo.
In the Western Hemisphere they are found from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras.

This fish in certain seasons does not appear to be infrequent in Cornwall :
according to Couch, three or four hundred are occasionally seen at a time. A
number were recorded in 1850 off Brighton (Hussey, Zoologist, 1850, p. 2929).
Edward thinks he recognized one example in Banffshire. Turton observes that
they are found frequently in the weirs about Swansea but do not come in shoals.

In Ireland they have been recorded on hearsay by Thompson as occurring on the
Connemara coast ; it is said on the authority of Mr. McCalla that two species of
mackerel are found there, and the second is supposed to be S. colias, while it is also
termed Spanish mackerel : Mr. Nimmo subsequently stated to Mr. Thompson that
the Spanish mackerel of Roundstone is the Bel one vulgaris.

Valenciennes records them of 4 lb. weight and 16 inches in length : while
De Kay observes that at New York, during August and September, he has seen
examples of this fish nearly 2 feet long. I am indebted for the specimen figured
to Professor Vinceguerra, of Genoa.

scombrim;. 93

Genus II. Orcynus (Cuvier), Lilthen.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiw present. Body oblong and somewhat
compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth on the jaws, vomer and palatine
bones, none on the tongue. Two dorsal fins, the spines of the first weak : finlets
posterior to the second dorsal and anal fins : no free spine before the anal Jin. Scales
small, covering the body, those on the anterior portion of the body forming a species
of corselet. Lateral-line unarmed, a longitudinal heel along either side of the free
portion of the tail. Air-bladder, when present, simple. Pyloric appendages numerous.

Geographical distribution. Found in most tropical and temperate seas.

Fishes of this genus differ from the true mackerel, Scomber, in having a
longitudinal keel along either side of the free portion of the tail, and the two
dorsal fins being placed close together : while the corselet, which is commencing
to be seen in Scomber colias, becomes now more developed in adults, and the
pectoral fins are likewise elongated in examples which have attained to their full
growth.

They are very voracious, and may be seen in shoals pursuing other fish on
which they prey.

As food, they frequently occasion indigestion and diarrhoea when eaten fresh,
but are more digestible when salted or otherwise prepared.

Davy in his " Physiological Researches," obseiwes that he found the heat of
the body of a tunny considerably higher than that of the surrounding water,
caused by the quantity of red particles in its blood.

1. Orcynus thynnus, Plate XXXV.

QvvroQ, Aristot. ii, c. 13, iv, c. 10, v, c. 9-11, vi, c. 17, viii, c. 2, 12, 13, 15, 19,
30, ix, c. 2 ; vElian, ix, c. 42, xiii, c. 13, 16, 27, xv. c. 3, 5, 6 ; Athen. vii, pp. 122,
301, 316, 319; Oppian, Hal. ii, p. 48, iii, 620. Opicvvoc, ^Elian, i, c. 40; Oppian,
i, c. 8, ii, p. 59 ; Athen. vii, pp. 301, 315. MsXapcpvg, Athen. vii, p. 315. Thunnus,
Ovid, Hal. v, p. 98. Thynnus, Pliny, ix, c. 15; Strabo, Geogr. iii, p. 145, v, p.
223, and vii, p. 320 A. xii, p. 345 D. xvii, p. 834. Orcynus, Pliny, xxxii, c. 11 ;
Gesner, p. 962, and Ed. 1598, f. 59, c. fig.; Aldrov. iii, c. 18, p. 314; Jonston,
lib. i, t. 1, c. 2, Art. 1, t. iii, f. 4 ; Rondel, viii, c. 13, p. 249, c. fig. Melandrys,
Pliny, ix, c. 15. Thunnus sive Thynnus, Belon. p. 108; Rondel, p. 241. Tonno,
Salv. p. 123. Thynnus, Gesner, pp. 957, 967, 1148. Tunny fish, Willughby, p.
176, pi. M. 1, f. 3 ; Ray, p. 58. Thunnus, Schonev. p. 75. Scomber, Briinn. Pise.
Mass. p. 70, n. 86. Tunny, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 266, pi. Hi, (Ed. 2)
iii, p. 360, pi. lxiii. Scomber, No. 2, Artedi, Genera, p. 31 ; Duhamel, ii, Sect. 7,
c. 2 ; Cetti, Stor. Nat. di Sard, iii, p. 138 ; Laquat, Voy. p. 23.

Scomber thynnus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 493 ; Gronov. Zooph. Xo. 305 ; Bloch, t. Iv ;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1330; Lacep. ii, p. 605; Bl. Schn. p. 21 ; Bonaterre, Ency. Ich.
p. 139, pi. lviii, f. 228; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 581; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. v;
Turton, p. 101 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 163 ; Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist, 1833, vi, p. 529 ;
Fleming, p. 218 ; Jenyns, p. 362 ; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 432.

Thynnus mediterraneus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 414; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 44.

Thynnus vulgaris, Cuv. and Yal. viii, p. 58, pi. ccx ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 138, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 150 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 209 ; Cuvier, Regne Anim. 111. Poiss.
pi. xlv, f. 2 ; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 47 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii. p. 238 ; Thompson,
Ann. Nat. Hist, v, p. 9, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 94 ; De Kay, New York
Fauna, Fishes, p. 105, pi. x, f. 28; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 57;
Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 7.

Thynnus Orientalis, Tern, and Schleg. Fauna Japon. p. 94.

Orcynus secundi-dorsalis (Storer) Gill. Amer. Fish. Report, 1873, p. 802.

Thynnus thynnus, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 30 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 362,
and Fische Godefroy Mas. Heft. v. December, 1876, p. 150.

94 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Tunny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 86, pi. lxxxii.

Orcynus thy n mis, Liitken, Spolia Atlantica, 1880, p. 460.

Of moderate age.

Thyrmus coretta, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 102; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 363,

Young.

Ancicoti {? Alicorti), Duhamel, Peches, Sect, vii, p. 205, pi. vii, f. 5.

Thynnus brachyp tents, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 98, pi. ccxi ; Cuvier, Regne
Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. xlvi, f. 2 ; GHinther, Catal. ii, p. 363.

Short-finned Tunny, Couch, Pish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 425, pi. lxxxii* ; Dunn,
Journ. Roy. Inst. Corn. xxii.

B. vii, D. 13-14/ V| +VIII-IX, P. 31, V. 1/5, A. T V+VII-VIII, C. 32-35, Vert.
16/23.

Length of head from 3| to 4, of caudal fin 5f to 6, height of body 4 to 4^ in
the total length. Eye with an adipose lid having a circular opening, in adults the
diameter is about 1/7 of the length of the head, while the distance from the
eye to the end of the snout equals 1/3 of the length of the head. Lower jaw
slightly the longer : the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth a single row of small ones in either jaw, a few on the vomer and in a
band on the palatines : none on the tongue. Fins the pectoral scimitar-shaped,
and varving in size with age. In the adult it is about 5\ times in the total length
of the fish : when a little younger, 0. coretta, it is about 5| in the total length of
the fish : whereas in the young, 0. brachypterus, it is not more than 1/7 to 1/8.
The first dorsal fin reaches about to the origin of the second, while the anal
commences under the first free dorsal ray. Scales cover the entire body, in the
adult forming a very distinct corselet which sends backwards three pro-
longations. The superior passes along the base of the first dorsal fin : the central
one is continued along the middle of the side, and in a groove in it rests the .upper
edge of the pectoral fin : while the inferior passes along the lower margin of the
abdomen to a little beyond the termination of the ventral fin. In young examples
the corselet is not so well developed, neither are the posterior prolongations so
marked. Jj'r-A/WJer present. f Colours back dark blue, almost black in
adults, but having some stripes in the young : gray along the sides and white
beneath. The sides are reticulated with fine gray lines, enclosing oval or round
spaces. The corselet is rather lighter than the contiguous parts. Jaws dashed
with pink. Pirst dorsal fin dusky: the second and the anal pinkish, shaded with
gray. Pectoral and ventral dusky, the first with a white posterior edge. Caudal
dusky. The younger fish are the lightest coloured.

Varieties.- The tunny has had many names conferred upon it, due to the
considerable modifications which it undergoes during its transformation from
extreme youth to old age.

Names. Pennant observed that on the coast of Scotland they were termed
Mackrelsture, derived from the generic name of " mackerel," and the Norwegian
word stwrie or great. Tunny has been considered a derivation respecting its
rapidity of movements, or else that the term is of Hebrew 7 or Phoenician origin,
in allusion to its great size. Thon in olden times signifying any large inhabitant
of the sea, or even the crocodile of the rivers. Aristotle recorded tunnies up to
1200 pounds weight, and Belonius states that in 1665 an example was taken oft' the
Spanish coast measuring 32 feet in length and 16 in girth.

These fishes have been known in various places by different names, in accord-
ance with their size, thus along the shores of the Black Sea the very young have
obtained the designation of auxid, which signifies such from the time of extrusion
from the eers until their first leaving the Euxine. The semi-adults are termed
pelamis, which covers the time until their return the succeeding spring. The yery
large ones go by the name of orcynus. But as the same term is differently employed
in different localities, an enumeration of names becomes of but little practical
use. Le Thon commun, French.

t See a detailed description by H. Malm in his "Fauna of Bokuslau," and for the anatomy
of the fish see Cuv. and Val. viii, pp. 63-09.

SCOMBRID^E. 95

Habits. They are generally considered as very timorous and easily frightened :
for example, it is recorded that due to the earthquake which overthrew Lisbon
in 1755, some alteration was occasioned in the character or conformation of the
coast which has caused these fishes ever since to prefer the African shore. In
Cornwall they mostly arrive in August, with the pilchards, or even earlier as
July, and continue until the end of October or even into November. They
pursue smaller fishes with great rapidity, and seem especially pleased when
among pilchards, Clupea pilchardus, the skipper, Esox saiirus, or the herring,
Cltt/ica harengus, and have even been observed to spring after the skipper as
it jumps out of the sea to try and avoid its foe. But as the winter sets in, they
appear to become inactive, reviving again the succeeding spring. It has been
surmised that the large and solitary tunnies, which are occasionally found off our
coast, are such as for some cause have parted company from others of their kind.
It may be that having outlived the influence of sex, they have wearied of the
further society of their fellows : or else that, like the rogue elephants, they have
been expelled. Smaller tunnies are observed in limited companies off our coasts,
being occasionally seen in Cornwall, and have been captured in herring nets at
Yarmouth.*

That tunnies, similarly to their relations the common mackerel, undertake
periodical migrations has been abundantly proved, but that all do so or that their
extent is as great as was formerly supposed is open to question. They were
believed to congregate in the Atlantic, and passing the Spanish coast to enter
the Mediterranean in immense shoals, continuing their course on to the Black
Sea in order to deposit their spawn there, while in this migration they rarely
passed far from the coast. Diminished in numbers, they enter the Bosphorus,
where, Pliny observed, that apparently alarmed at the presence of a white rock,
they then cross to the opposite side termed the " Golden Horn," reputed to
have received its name from the wealth which these fishes bring. When
the time arrives for their leaving the Black Sea, they await a north wind and
pass out at the opposite side to the one on which they entered. These interesting
accounts of how the Bosphorus is passed are now stated to be fictitious. Off
Spain these fishes arrive in three distinct batches, the first being composed
of large individuals weighing four to five hundredweight, the second of
such as are from two to three hundredweight, and the third smaller. As
was remarked above as occurring in the common mackerel, those of different
ages are apt to keep in companies. At Cadiz they are captured going towards
the Mediterranean, but not on their return, whereas at Gibraltar and Taril'a
they are fished for both coming and returning, the fishes at the first period
being the largest and the best. While at Ceuta, on the opposite coast, they
are rare, being taken on arrival but not while returning from the Mediter-
ranean. Duhamel observes that they arrive in May and stay until the end of
June in Corsica, Sardinia, Catalonia, and Sicily, but he likewise remarks that
they fish for them in Catalonia until October, the late catches perhaps being
returning fish. At Agde in the Gulf of Lyons, they are taken from April until
September, and in Provence from June until September: while in the inter-
mediate locality of Ciotat at the mouth of the Rhone, the first fishery is from
their arrival in March until July 15th, after which date until October, the
returning fishes are said to be taken in large numbers. In the not far distant
locality of Cassis, they capture these fishes in November until the end of
December, showing that some at least most probably remain in the Mediterranean,
to the depths of which sea many must retire during the winter months.

Modes of capture. OH the Cornish coast the tunny is mostly taken in
mackerel or' pilchard drift nets, or accidentally when fishing for herring or other
species of fish. Its presence being more or less accidental and its value in-
considerable, it can only be said to be accidentally captured.

But in some parts of the Mediterranean, more especially at either extremity
of that sea, tunny fisheries have been carried on from almost immemorial ages.

* Some authorities have looked upon the small tunnies taken off Yarmouth as honitos.

96 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Some authors have referred their commencement prior to the historic flood :
others have credited Tubal Cain with having first employed boats and manu-
factured hooks for this purpose. The Phoenicians are said to have established
tunny fisheries in Spain. Herodotus, B.C. 550, alludes to nets employed for taking
this fish, and ^lian, how a watch tower was erected in an elevated situation to
enable a watchman or huer to keep a look out for the advent of the tunnies.
When perceived, he warned the fishermen, and likewise gave notice as to the way
the shoal was heading. Much the same procedure continues to the present time,
and on the watchman giving the alarm, numerous boats at once proceed to sea,
the fishermen being under the orders of a chief, who directs them how to
surround the fishes with a long net constructed of several pieces, which are
severally joined together. As they draw in closer, more nets are added and the
affrighted fish driven to where their destruction becomes easy. These may be
stationary nets, having a cone-shaped tunnel to receive them, or large enclosures
constructed of nets (see Introduction). In the Black Sea the greatest captures
are made as the tunnies pass the Bosphorus.

Baits. Although some authors assert that these fish do not take a bait, this
cannot be invariably the case. Pennant observed that they did in his time : and
in localities where they are numerous, an imitation fish proves a good lure.

Breeding. Off Sicily, according to the Duke d'Ossada, these fish arrive in
April or early in May with the ova undeveloped, but they rapidly grow and are
deposited after the middle of June. In July the young are said to weigh \\ oz. :
in August, 4 oz. : in October, 30 oz.

As food. When quite fresh, if not above about 30 lb. in weight, the flesh is
tolerable, its colour before being cooked somewhat resembles beef, but it becomes
paler when boiled. Some consider its flavour between that of the salmon and
the mackerel, but inferior to both. Others have compared the firmness of its flesh
to that of the stui-geon, but considered its flavour to be superior. They may be
used for soup, as ragouts, or plain fried or boiled. In France pies are made
of tunny which are celebrated all over that country. Thon marine is this fish
preserved in oil with salt, and which is eaten cold like pickled salmon. The
eggs also are prepared with salt.

In Pliny's time tunnies were cut into pieces, the shoulder, neck, and abdomen
being most esteemed when eaten quite fresh, but even then they occasionally gave
rise to much flatulence. The remainder of the fish was preserved in salt. The
portions, which somewhat resembled black oaken boards, were termed melandri/a.
The tail part was that least esteemed. Younger ones were cut into cubical pieces
and termed cijbium, or small cubes. The shoulders formed the clidium : the
auchenia was from the nape of the neck : while the lioreuvi or ureiim was believed
to be the tail part, but these terms appear to have been differently used in distant
localities. The tunnies of Spain and Sardinia were considered by the Romans as
more tender and better tasted than those from Constantinople, this was attributed
to the food being superior, and the further they travelled from these countries
towards the column of Hercules the poorer they were said to become.

Habitat. From the North Atlantic, extending into the Mediterranean and the
Black Sea, along the British coasts and have been captured off Sweden, while the
British Museum has received an example from Tasmania, in the South Pacific,
rendering it probable that their range is more extensive than is at present known.
In the Western Hemisphere they are occasionally seen in Newfoundland,
and sometimes specimens of large size are washed up dead, especially after severe
gales (Saxby, Zoologist, 1871, p. 2553). They extend down North America to so
far south as Florida and even into the Carribean Sea, and Poey enumerates the
various stages as distinct species all belonging to the Cuban Fauna.

In Britain they have been taken in the vicinity of the islands on the north
and west coast of Scotland, while off Banffshire several have been captured from
time to time, and a very large one in a salmon net at Portsey. This last measured 9
feet in length and 6 in girth (Edward). They have been recorded off the
Norfolk coast where a large one came ashore (Gatcombe, Zool. 1877, p. 27). In
the Norwich Museum is one 42 inches in length, believed to have been

SCOMBRIDiE. 97

secured off the Suffolk coast, near Southwold. A large one likewise came ashore
off the Kent coast in 1880, while these fish are said by Mr. R. Conch to be
common a few miles from shore aronnd the Scilly Isles, Cape Cornwall, Lands End,
Tol-pedw-penwith, to the Lizard ; less so eastwards, but still occasionally found on
the Devonshire coast, until about August, when they leave in a south-westerly
direction.

In Ireland, Dr. Jacob obtained one 8 feet 3 inches long, off Dublin Bay, in
the autumn of 1841, and which weighed fully 300 lb.

Occasional notices of the capture of large examples of this fish occur in natural
history works. Pennant records a specimen weighing 460 lb. taken at Inverary
in 1769. In 1801, three were taken off Margate, being said to be the first record
of tunnies so far north on the English coast. In July, 1831, an example 9 feet
long was taken at Gairloch, nearly opposite Greenock, it was in pursuit of herrings.
1840 they were abundant off Cornwall, and some weighed 80 lb. : 1850, they were
common in the Moray Firth, one captured was 9 feet long, while another killed
near Inverness was 5 feet (Gordon, Zool. 1852, p. 3459). In March, 1851, one
weighing 316 lb. was taken off Dartmouth. In September, 1853, one said to be
about 60 stone or 480 lb. weight was stranded in Tees Bay (Hogg, An. Nat.
Hist. 2, 1855, xvi, p 213). In September, 1868, an example, measuring 8 feet
9 inches, was taken at Dawlish, in Devonshire, it weighed between 3 and 4
cwt. : in November, the same year, one weighing 5 cwt. was secured in
the Firth of Forth. On October 6th, 1870, one 6 feet 9 inches long was taken at
Yarmouth. July 22nd, 1873, one 9 feet long near Plymouth: November, 1876,
one 9 feet 4 inches at Bacton. In May, 1880, the cranium of one, 10 inches across,
was found off Margate : it must have belonged to a fish fully 7 feet long, and
which probably weighed about 500 lb.

But the foi'egoing are by no means the largest recorded. Storer mentions one
taken near Cape Ann, in America, weighing 1000 lb. While in Sardinia
tunnies under 100 lb. weight are termed scamp irro : from 1 to 300 lb. mezzo-
tonno, " half-tunny." They frequently attain 1000 lb., and Cetti asserts that
they run to 1800 lb.

The figure is from an example in the National collection.

2. Orcynus germo, Plate XXXVI.

? Albacore, Sloane, Voj. Jamaica, 1707, i, p. 28, pi. i, f. 1.

Alilonghi, Duhamel, Peches, ii, Sect, vii, pp. 203, 207; Cetti, Nat. Hist. Sard,
iii, p. 191.

Scomber alatunga, Gmel. Linn. p. 1330 ; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 222 ; Lacep. iii,
p. 21 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 590.

Scomber germo, Lacep. ii, p. 598 and iii, p. 1 ; Bennett, Whaling Voyage, ii,
p. 278.

Orcynus alalonga, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 419 : Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 238 ;
Couch, "Zoologist, 1846, p. 1413, c. fig. ; Scott, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 1865,
xvi, p. 268.

Thynnus alalonga, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 120, pi. ccxv; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111.
Poiss. pi. xlvii, f . 1 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 31 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. Second
Supp. p. 14, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 220, c. fig. ; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 4,
and Pro. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 78; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 366; Thompson, Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 1861, p. 340.

Thynnus Pacificus and argenti-vittatus, Cuv. and Val. vin, pp. 133, 134;
Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 366.

Thynnus balteatus, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 136.

? Auxis Sloanii, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 148.

Thynnus albacora, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 77, and Trans. Zool. Soc.
iii, p. 4; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 365.

Thynnus macropterus and sibi, Temm. and Schleg. Fauna Japon. Poiss.
pp. 97, 98, pi. 1 and li ; Bleeker, Verb. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Makr. p. 37.

Long-finned tunny, R. Q. Couch, Zoologist, p. 1413, c. fig.

98 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Oermon, J. Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 100, pi. lxxxiv.

Thynnus germo, Stcind. S. B. Ak. Wien. 1876, p. 151, pi. xcvi ; Gunther, Fish.
Gode. Mus. Heft, xi, Dec. 1876, p. 151, t. xcvi (scaling incorrect).
Orcynus germo, Liitken, Spolia Atlant. p. 187, t. iii, fig. 1, 2.

B. vii, D. 14/^ + YII-VIII, P. 37, V. 1/5, A. -& + VIII-IX, C. 35, Vert. 40.

Length of head 3| to 4, of caudal fin 5, height of body 4^ in the total length.
Eye diameter 4|- to 5 in the length of the head, 1| to 2 diameters from the end
of the snout. Lower jaw the longer : the maxilla reaches posteriorly to
beneath the front edge or first third of the eye. Teeth a row in the jaws,
also present on the vomer, the palatines, and on the tongue. Fins this species
is distinguished by the great length of its sickle-shaped pectoral fin which is
situated in the middle of the depth of the body : in the adult it equals about one-
third of the total length of the fish, but as in the common tunny so in the germon
it has been ascertained that the comparative length of this fin increases with the
age of the fish. Dr. Liitken has figured in Spolia Atlantica, t. iii, f. 2 (see plate
xxxvi), at thrice its natural size, one which measured 4/10 of an inch in length,
and in which the pectoral fin was only one-eighth of the total length. The
ventrals are placed close together, separated by a fine scale, which gives the appear-
ance of an additional ray. Dr. Scott states that the Exe example had 8 finlets
above and 7 below. Gcecal appendages numerous. Scales somewhat similar to
what exist in 0. thynnus : the groove for the reception of the pectoral fin is well
marked, but the corselet is much more obscure. Colours very dark blue along
the back, becoming silvery on the sides and beneath. Occasionally dark parallel
longitudinal lines pass along the sides of the body. Fins dark.

In the young there are strong spines at the angle of the preopercle, the
posterior edge of which is also serrated.

The various stages of this fishes growth have been named much as follows.
Adult, with pectoral fins reaching to beyond the termination of the second dorsal,
Orcynus alatunga and 0. alalonga. The body one-fourth higher than in adults,
0. pacificus. Pectorals slightly shorter, being 3| in the total length, 0. argenti-
vittatus : a little shorter still, or 4 in the total length, 0. balteatus and
0. inacropterus.

Names. Germon or long-finned tunny : the first is said to be a corruption of
War-man in use at the He d'Yeu, when the English were masters of Guienne and
Poictou, and referring most probably to its habits of warfare among other fishes :
Albacore. Hegalalonchia is its Basque name, and signifies " long-winged," while
the usual term among French sailors of longue-oreille or " long-eared," also refers
to the extent of its pectoral fins.

Habits. These fishes appear to have much the same habits as the common
tunny, and are equally voracious. They arrive in the Bay of Biscay sometimes
as early as May, but more commonly in June, and remain until October, and
are usually about two months later than the 0. thynnus. The germon preys upon
mullets, pilchards, mackerel, and other fish of gregarious habits, and M. d'Orbigny
has found flying-fishes in their stomachs.

Bennett observes that ships when cruising slowly in the Pacific Ocean are
usually attended by myriads of these fish for many successive months, but a few
days rapid sailing is sufficient to get rid of them ; they only take a bait while the
vessel is moving. They follow the shark in shoals, and annoy it in the same
manner as smaller birds do those of a larger and predacious kind, as the hawk or
owl. He considered they came to the ship for protection against their chief
enemy the sword-fish. " They are very voracious and miscellaneous feeders.
Flying-fish, calmars, and small shoal fish are their more natural food : though
they do not refuse the animal offal from a ship. Among the other food contained
in their maw, we have found small ostracions, file-fish, sucking-fish, janthina
shells, and pelagic crabs. In one instance a small bonito, and in a second a
dolphin eight inches long, and a paper nautilus shell containing its sepia tenant.
It was often amusing to watch an albacore pursuing a flying-fish, and to mark
the precision with which it swam beneath the feeble aeronaut, keeping him

SCOMBRIDJE. 99

steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at the moment of his descent. But
this the flying-fish would often elude by instantaneously renewing its leap, and
not unfrequently escaped by extreme agility."

The example described by Dr. Scott was taken three miles up the Exe, where
it had got entangled among some palings, which had been driven into the river
about a foot from the edge, where a kind of quay had been made, and which
formed a cul-de-sac. Into this the fish got : and so violent were its struggles to
get out, that it drew the attention of some workmen who were at a little distance,
when one of them got his gun and shot it. The efforts to free itself by shaking
the palings were described as like the strength of two men.

Means of capture. They are said to take baits only when at great depths, and
to refuse them if at or near the surface : a cloudy sky and a mackerel breeze are
opportune for this fishing, while the fishery is during July and August. Cuvier
observes that when once a shoal of these fishes has been discovered, the fishermen
follow them through the entire season.

Baits. Will take any artificial substance resembling a fish trailing through
the water, but when hooked are very strong. M. cle la Moriniere says that the
fishermen of He d'Yeu commence in the south of the Bay of Biscay, opposite
St. Sebastian, and follow the fish as they migrate towards the north of Belleisle
capturing from 13,000 to 14,000 of a season. Their lines are 80 fathoms in length
and salted-eel is considered the best bait, but a scrap of white or blue cloth or a
piece of earthenware or tin cut into the form of a pilchard is often sufficiently
attractive.

As food. It is found in the Bay of Biscay, and during the best season or in
July and August, its flesh is whiter and more delica.te than that of the tunny,
whereas both anterior to this time and subsequently it is inferior.

Habitat. Mediterranean, and extending in the Atlantic to Madeira and the
Cape of Good Hope. Is common along the south coasts of Europe, and only a few
stragglers have been recorded in Devonshire and Cornwall. Van Bemmelen,
however, includes this species among his list of those found in Holland. It has
been taken twice in Mount's Bay, in Cornwall, in mackerel seines, the last of these
two in 1846. In March, 1861, an example 33 inches long was captured at
Portland and sent to the British Museum (W. Thompson) : in 1865, on August
26th, one 24 inches long to the base of the caudal fin, and 12 lbs. weight, was
killed on the Devonshire coast, a little way up the River Exe, about three miles
from its mouth, and at about half-tide (Scott 1. c).

The example figured is one in the national collection and was brought from
the Cape of Good Hope. The figure of the young is an outline of that by
Professor Liitken 1. c. given three times the natural size.

100 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus III. Thynnus (Cuvier), Lilthen.

Thynnichthys, Giglioli.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oblong and someivliat
compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth on the jaws and palatine bones, but
none on the vomer. Tiro dorsal fins with a very short space between them, the
spines of the first ivealc : finlets behind the second dorsal and anal. Scales small,
forming a corselet in the anterior portion of the body, but scaleless posteriorly.
Lateral line unarmed : a longitudinal heel along either side of the free portion of the
tail. Air-bladder, when present, simple. Pyloric appendages numerous.

This genus is composed of the smaller tunnies, which differ from the larger
forms, Orcynus, in the vomer being toothless, and their having no scales outside
the corselet : while irrespective of this, they possess a special development in the
form of a net, or trellis, of a portion of the abdominal part of the vertebral
column, between the vertebra? properly so-called, and the ha^mapophyses, as has
been described by Cuvier.

Although only one species of this genus, viz., Thynnus pelamys, has been
recorded from the British seas, it is by no means improbable that others, as
T. thunnina, may likewise be occasional visitors, for it has been captured more
than once off Denmark, which locality it could scarcely have reached without
passing our shores.

Geographical distribution. From the seas of Northern Europe throughout those
of temperate and tropical regions.

Thynnus pelamys, Plate XXXVII.

Renard, i, 20, 113; Osbeck, Reise, p. 87; Leguat, Voy. p. 21, c. fig. ; Funnel,
Voy. Dampier, p. 158, f . 32 ; Dutertre, Hist. Antilles, ii, p. 214, p. 295, c. fig.
Variletta, Humbolt, Obs. Zool. ii, p. 190. Thunnus, Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, tit. i,
c. 2, Art. p. 12, t. iii, f. 2.

Scomber pelamis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 492 ; Bl. Schn. p. 23 ; Bonnaterre,
Enc. Ich. p. 139; Gmel. Linn. p. 1330; Bennett, Whaling Voyage, ii, p. 281;
De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 315 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 588; Scouler, Mag. Nat.
Hist, vi, 1833, p. 529 ; ? Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 167 ; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1835, p. 80 ; Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 363.

Scomber pel amides, Lacep. iii, p. 14, ii, pi. xx, f. 2.

Thynnus pelamys, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 113, pi. ccxiv; Temm. and Schleg.
Fauna Japon. Poiss. p. 96, pi. xlix ; Rich. Ich. China, p. 267 ; Cuv. Regne Anim.
111. Poiss. pi. xlvii, f. 2 ; Bleeker, Amboina, pi. 41 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2)
i, p. 157, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 215; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 53; White,
Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 31 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 94 ; Giinther, Catal.
ii, p. 364; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 7 ; A. Malm, CEfv. Ak. Fork. 1875,
No. 7 ; Poey, Ann. Soc. Esp. 1875, iv, p. 145 ; Dav, Fishes of India, pt. ii, 1875,
p. 252; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 173; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar.
1879, p. 14; Moreau, Hist. Nat. Poissons de la France, 1881, ii, p. 419.

Thynnus vagans, Lesson, Voy. Coq. Zool ii, p. 162, pi. xxxii.

Bunito, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 97, pi. lxxxiii.

B. vii, D. 13-15/^3 + VIII, P. 27, V. 1/5, A. T V + VII, C. 35.

Length of head 3| to 4, of pectoral fin 6 to 8, height of body 3^ to 4 in the
total length. Eye diameter 5 to 6 in the length of the head, 1t> diameters from
the end of the snout, and also apart. The posterior margin of the preopercle is
3/5 the length of its lower limb. Snout pointed : the lower jaw the longer: the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye.
Teeth in a single row in the jaws, present on the palatines but absent from
the vomer. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength, the first being strong,
two-thirds the height of the body, and nearly twice as high as the rays of the

SCOMBRID^E. 101

second dorsal. The pectoral in adults extends to beneath the tenth dorsal spine.
Anal similar to the second dorsal, and commences on a vertical line behind its last
ray. Caudal with pointed lobes. Scales anteriorly form a corselet, which
reaches from the base of the pectoral fin along the whole length of that of the
first dorsal : behind this corselet the body is destitute of scales Air-bladder
stated to have been absent in Couch's example. Colours -back bluish, becoming
silvery on the sides and beneath. Four, five, or even six concave, longitudinal,
dark, bluish bands pass along the side of the body and abdomen, ending
posteriorly on the lateral- line or close to the finlets.

Although Risso describes this fish pretty accurately as to colour and the number
of spines and rays, it is questionable whether some error has not occurred, as he
stated it to be common at Nice, whereas it is very rare in the Mediterranean.
He observes that the body " is covered with small pentagonal scales," a definition
applicable to Pelamys sarda (see page 102), with which he appears to have
confused it.

Navies. Bonito. Striped-bellied-tunny .

Habits. Although mostly observed in the open seas, they appear to be some-
what of surface swimmers, while they are generally seen in shoals of from twenty
to thirty. They may be witnessed in the tropics pursuing the flying-fish, and
resemble the tunnies in their propensity for consuming other forms. Lesson
found a Scombresox in the stomach of one, and Commerson discovered small shells.
Breeding. Couch remarks upon having procured a female full of roe in the
month of July.

Diseases. It is tormented, as are also other tunnies, by several species of
intestinal worms.

As food. Its properties appear to vary : Osbeck thought it dry, as did also
Dussumier : but Commerson appears to have approved of it. Personally, I have
eaten this fish when rounding the Cape of Good Hope and found it a little dry.
Occasionally it causes colic and diarrhoea.

Habitat.- This fish is chiefly a resident of the open seas, more especially the
tropical and warmer portions of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. In
Europe it has been obtained off Scandinavia and Denmark, also along the British
coasts, the Canaries, and beyond. Although Dussumier brought examples from
India I failed to obtain them there, but Thynnus tlmnnina was at certain seasons
locally common.

Stewart (Elements Nat. Hist, i, p. 363) remarks that the " bonito " " has been
taken though rarely in the Firth of Forth." In July, 1832, one was captured in
the Firth of Clyde (Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist, vi, 1833, p. 529) and purchased for
the Andersonian Institute of Glasgow. But Jenyns observes that it is doubtful
if this species be intended or the Pelamys sarda. In July, 1873, an example,
3 feet long, was procured by Dr. Moir, of St. Andrew's, from a salmon net, at the
mouth of the Kenley Burn (Walker, Scot. Nat. January, 1874). Couch alludes
to an example secured at Whitehaven in Cumberland. In September, 1876, one,
20 inches long, was recorded as having been taken in a trammel net at
Catwater, Plymouth, while a few larger ones are said also to have been captured
there (Gatcombe, Zool. 1877, p. 27). In August, 1880, one, 2 feet long, which
weighed 6f lb., was secured at Hawgill, Solway Forth.

Ireland. One was taken near Wexford, 29 inches long, and sent to the Royal
Dublin Society. Dr. Harvey also records one from Kinsale : in 1849, another
was taken at Bennett's Court, South of Ireland, and sent to Tarred.

The example figured is stuffed, and from the Cape seas. Yarrell's largest
specimen appears to have been 33 inches in length, and was perhaps from Cork.

102 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV. Pelamts, Guvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oolong, and rather
elongated. Cleft of mouth deep. Bather strong teeth in the jaws, teeth also
on the palatines but none on the vomer. Two dorsal fins, the first, which consists of
rather weak spines, continued almost to the base of the second: six to nine finlets
behind the second dorsal and anal fins. Scales small, forming a corselet in the
anterior region of the body, which is also finely scaled posteriorly. Lateral-line
unarmed : a longitudinal heel along either side of the free portion of the tail.
Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages dentritical.

Geographical distribution. From the seas of Northern Europe throughout
those of temperate and tropical regions.

Pelamys sarda, Plate XXXVIII.

Amia, Rondel, viii, c. 9, p. 238, c. fig ; Gesner, 1598, f. 60, c. fig. Sarda,
Rondel, viii, c. 12, p. 248, c. fig. Gesner, 1598, f. 59, c. fig. (Young). Pelamys,
Salviani, f. 123, c. fig. : Belon. p. 179, c. fig. Thynnus, Aldrov, iii, c. 18, p. 313,
c. fig. Pelamys Belonii, Willugh. p. 180. Pelamys sarda, Ray, p. 58. Scomber,
No. 2, Var. Artedi, Synom, p. 50. Scomber pelamys, Briinn. Ich. Massil. p. 69.

Scomber sarda, Bloch, t. cccxxxiv ; Bl. Schn. p. 22 ; Mitch. Trans. Lit. and
Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 428 ; Lacep. iv, pp. 699-700 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 168.

Scomber mediterraneus, Bl. Schn. p. 23 ; De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 336.

Scomber ponticus, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso- Asiat. p. 17.

Thynnus palamit us, Rafin. Caratt. 44.

Thynnus pelamis and sarda, Risso, Eur. Merid iii, pp. 415, 417.

Pelamys sarda, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 149, pl.ccxvii; Yarrell, Bi'it. Pish. (Ed. 3)
ii, p. 226a, c. fig. ; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 4 : De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish,
p. 106, pi. ix, f. 27 ; Cuv. Regne Anirn. 111. Poiss. pi. xlviii, f. 2 ; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 238 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 58 ; Xord. in Demid. Voy.
Russ. Merid. iii, p. 392 ; Love, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 24S ; Val. in. Webb and
Berth. lies Canar. Poiss. p. 50 ; Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 1859, iv,
p. 399 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 31 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 367 ; Steind. Ich.
Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 8 ; Malm. CEfv. Akad. 1870, p. 837 ; Moreau, ii, p. 430.
The plain bouito, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes, (Ed. tt) p. 224 (figure not description).

Pelamid, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 102, pi. Ixxxv.

Short finned tunny, Couch, 1. c. p. 425, pi. lxxxii*.

B. vii, D. 22 | T 3E- lT + VIII-IX, P. 25, V. 1/5. A. T yfVII, C. 26, Vert. 50.

Length of head 4j to 4|, of lobes of caudal fin 6, height of body 5 in the total
length. JSye with a narrow adipose lid on either side, diameter 6 in the length
of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout and also apart. Snout
compressed and conical : jaws of equal length in front : the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the hind edge of the orbit. Teeth in a single row in the
jaws, of moderate strength anteriorly, increasing in size posteriorly : a pair of
canines in the lower jaw above the symphysis and posterior to the outer row : a row
on the palatines, none on the vomer. Fins dorsal spines of moderate strength,
increasing in height to the second and third, from thence they gradually decrease in
length, the posterior eight or nine being very short, the last being close to the com-
mencement of the second dorsal : the latter fin is highest in front, where however its
height is less than the length of its base. Pectoral short in the example described
(which is 18 inches long), being 1/10 of the total length and less than half the length
of the head. Ventrals shorter than the pectorals. Anal commences on a vertical
line beneath the middle of the second dorsal fin to which it is similar. Caudal
with pointed lobes. Scales anteriorly form a corselet on the body, which has a
central prolongation beneath the pectoral fin, an inferior prolongation at the
ventral tin, and a superior one which passes along the base of the first dorsal.
The remainder of the body is likewise covered with fine scales. Air-bladder
absent. Colours back of a bluish colour shot with purple, and traversed by
narrow oblique bands which pass backwards and upwards to it from the abdomen :

SCOMBRIDiE. 103

a scries of broad bars descend down the upper half of the sides of the fish, which
are most distinct in the young and frequently lost with age. The first dorsal fin
nearly black, iu large examples the posterior spines are white : second dorsal
yellowish, with a dark upper half and white summit : caudal and pectoral black :
lower fins yellow with dark markings.

Names. Pelamid and belted bonito.

Habits. Said to be very wary, and arrives off the coasts of Sicily in great
abundance during the spring, and likewise in the autumn, when many are
captured. This fish is a rapid swimmer, and has been seen springing into the air
after its prey. In September, 1836, in very fine weather, with the sea smooth,
a large number of fishes, which Couch considered to be of this species, were
perceived in pursuit of sauries, and the same has happened on other occasions.

Means of capture. In Sicily, according to Rafinesque, they are frequently
taken in the spring by the tunny fishers. Off the British coasts they are
occasionally secured along with the mackerel and their allies.

As food. In Sicily, Rafinesque stated, they were held in even more estimation
than the tunnies ; while they are salted and prepared in a similar manner to the
latter, and are of considerable mercantile importance.

Habitat. This fish is abundantly spread throughout the Mediterranean to the
Black Sea, and also through the Atlantic Ocean, extending along the shores of
North America from Cape Cod to Florida, and iu the Eastern Hemisphere from
Scandinavia (Malm), Holland (Hubrecht), and the British coasts so far as the
Cape of Good Hope.

In June, 1859, an example 22^ inches in length, and 4 lb. 6 oz. in weight, was
captured at North Esk in a salmon bag-net, and is now in the Montrose Miiseum
(Gray, Ann. and Mag. (3) iv, p. 399) : in 1860, on December 4th, one, 14 inches
long, was secured at Swanage in Dorsetshire, and is figured in Couch ; in August,
1877, one, 17 inches long, and weighing 2 lb. was taken in a ground seine at
Mevagissey (Gatcombe, Zool. p. 452).

It is evident that many more examples of this fish have been captured but
recorded under a wrong name. Couch in his appendix, under the designation of
short-finned-tunny, figures this species from an example taken in a drift net on
August 18th, 1865, by Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey, and states that within a week
another example was secured in the same manner by a fisherman at Polperro, and
in the first week in September three more. The first was only 6 inches from the
snout to the fork of the tail, and the three last only reached to the length of 8
inches. This leads to the conclusion that the fishes placed by Mr. Dunn under
the name of short finned tunnies were really pelamids, he having been led into
this error by Mr. Couch who fortunately figured one of Mr. Dunn's examples.
He observes that in the year 1865 young specimens were plentiful, several were
caught at Mevagissey, Polperro, Gorran, and Portloe.

Dunn observes of the pelamid, that " it is rare now. I never saw but two ; their
casts are in the South Kensington Museum. They probably might have been
more plentiful in the past. Some of our old men speak of catching mackerel of
7 lb. weight on plummet lines ; no doubt they were pelamids. Nearly all the
fishermen who saw my specimens called them mackerel." The casts, which I have
examined, are those of Pelamys sarda.

It is remarkable how this fish has become mistaken for the " short finned
tunny, " even so early in the history of Ichthyology as seen in Willughby, 1686,
p. 180, who was followed by various authors.

Mr. Cornish is unable at this distance of time to give further information as to
whether the following fishes were " short finned tunnies" or "pelamids;" he
observed, however, in 1868 that the dorsal fin rays did not agree with Couch's
description and figure, but did not note the points of difference. He recorded
(Zoologist, 1868, p. 1263) one captured at Penzance, August 20th, 8 t 9 q inches in
length : in 1877 (1. c. p. 452), another 19^ inches long, and in August, 1880, a
third, 23 inches in length and weighing 6 lb. (1. c. p. 366). This last was so like
a mackerel that a casual observer might well have taken it for a giant mackerel.
It never reaches the size attained by the larger tunnies, 3 feet in length being
the maximum recorded size.

104 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus V. Auxis, Cuv. and Val.

Branchiostegals seven : pseuclobranchice present. Body oolong and somewhat
elongated. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth in the jaws, hut vomer and palatine
hones toothless. Two dorsal fins with a long space between them, the spines of
the first weak. Seven to nine finlets behind the second dorsal and anal. Scales forming
a corselet in the anterior portion of the body. Lateral-line unarmed : a longitudinal
heel along the free portion of the tail. Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages
dendritical.

Geographical distribution. From the German and Atlantic to the Indian
Ocean ; likewise in the Mediterranean.

Auxis rochei, Plate XXXIX, fig. 1.

Scomber tazo (Commers.), Lacepede, iii, p. 9.

Scomber rochei, Risso, Ich. Nice, 1810, p. 165.

Scomber bistts, Rafin. 1810, p. 45, t. ii, f. 1.

Thynnus rocheanus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 417.

Auxis vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 139, pi. ccxvi ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes,
(Ed. 2), i, p. 160, c. fig. (Ed. 3), ii, p. 224 (not figure) ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 311ns.
Poiss. pi. xlviii, f. 1 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 238 ; Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850,
p. 248.

Auxis taso, Cuv. and Yal. viii, p. 146.

Thynnus brachypterus, Yarrell (Ed. 3) ii, p. 219 (figure, not description).

Auxis bisus, C. Bonap. Catal. No. 679 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 32 ;
Moreau, ii, p. 415.

Auxis thynnoides, Bleeker, Ternate, v, p. 301.

Auxis rochei, Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 369 ; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 103 ; Nilss.
(Efv. Sven. Vet. Akad. Fork 1864, p. 500, t.vi; Steind.Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868,
p. 10 ; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 14.

Plain bonito, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 105, pi. lxxxvi.

B. vii, D. 10-11/11-12+ VIII-IX, P. 21-22, V. 1/5, A. 11-12+VII, C. 24,

Vert. 39.

Length of head 4 to 4-^, of lobe of caudal fin 9, height of body 4| (to 6 in
the young) in the total length between the end of the snout and the centre of the
base of the caudal fin. Eye with narrow adipose lids, the anterior of which
overlaps the posterior one inferiorly : diameter of eye 1/4 to 2/9 of the length of
the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and the same distance
apart. Jaws of about the same length anteriorly, or the lower slightly the longer :
the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye.
Teeth rather small in the jaws, absent from the tongue and palatine bones.
Fins first dorsal of a triangular form, it commences above the origin of the
pectoral, the highest ray equalling the length of the latter fin : a considerable
interspace exists between the two fins : second dorsal low, finlets small. Ventrals
situated beneath the base of the pectoral. Anal commences on a vertical line
beneath the first dorsal finlet. Caudal deeply lobed. Air-bladder absent.
Stomach elongated into a long and pointed ccecal portion, as shown in the figure
(plate xxxix). Scales form a corselet over the chest, and prolonged posteriorly
in the vicinity of the dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins, this is not distinct in the
very young. Median and lateral keels near the base of the caudal fin well
developed. Colours bluish superiorly, becoming silvery white on the sides and
beneath, in some examples the back being indistinctly marbled : the corselet is
slightly darker than the body posterior to it. Fins gray, the anal having a
yellowish tinge.

SCOMBRIDJS. 105

Varieties in colour have been recorded. The back may have dark spots with
light edges.

Names. Plain bonito was so named by Yarrell in contradistinction to the
other forms which are belted or banded. VAuxide commune and Bounitou,
French.

Means of capture. In the Mediterranean a regular fishery exists for them
from May until September : they are also captured along with the tunnies.

Breeding. Appears to deposit its spawn about August : the ova are white
and invested with a reddish, albuminous covering. The females are said to be
larger than the males.

As food. When fresh its flesh is but little esteemed, being red and hard like a
coarse mackerel, consequently it is usually salted or pickled. This process,
however, must be soon effected because decomposition is very rapid, and should
the fish be kept three or four days it becomes of a blackish colour.

Habitat. Scandinavian seas, the Atlantic Ocean, extending to Jamaica : also
the Indian Ocean. In the Mediterranean it is rather rare, but is taken along with
the tunny. Risso remarks that it appears off Nice in the spring, summer, and
autumn. In some localities in Sicily it is frequently observed.

Lowe observed a single example at Madeira February 3rd, 1845, and remarked
that it was not quite unknown to the fishermen, but its occurrence was said to be a
mere chance. June, 1839, two examples were captured at Yarmouth, and came into
Mr. Yai'rell's possession. 1843, one was taken at Looe, in Cornwall, and two were
captured in Mount's Bay, one taken in 1844 being the example figured by Couch :
it was preserved in the Museum of the Natural History Society at Penzance.
September, 1847, another was captured off Yarmouth, and was secured for the
Cambridge Philosophical Society. Mr. Gordon reported to Mr. Couch the
occurrence of this fish in the Moray Firth. Mr. Dunn observes in his remarks on
Cornish Fishes " one of these was landed here last week." Edward records several
from Banffshire, and remarks respecting one that a "very peculiar feature
connected with it was, that if stroked down when wet it gave the hand all the
appearance of having come across a piece of metal newly black-leaded."

Yarrell's example measured 18 inches in length. Risso observes that the
weight does not exceed 6 lb.

106 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus VI. Echeneis, Artecli.

Bemoropsis, Bhombochirus, Bemilegia, Leptecheneis, Bhtheirichthys, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranchice well developed. Body elongated
and fusiform : head depressed and superiorly provided with, an adhesive organ.
Eyes lateral, and directed obliquely downwards and ouhoards. Cleft of mouth deep.
Villiform teeth, occasionally with larger ones intermixed, on the jaws, vomer, palatine
bones, and generally on the tongue. The first dorsal fin modified on the summit of
the head and occiput into an adhesive dish : second dorsal and anal with many or a
moderate number of rays : no finlets : ventrals thoracic. Scales minute. No keel
on the sides of the tail. Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate
numbers.

The fishes of this genus at one time were considered malacopterygians, as no
spinous dorsal fin was observable : they now form the group Echeneidce of Muller,
the sub-family Echeneidina of Cantor, and the family Echeneoidei, Bleeker. Gill
has divided them into two groups composed of six genera. Liitken likewise
sub-divides them into two sub-genera. They are subject to great alterations with
age, in some the central rays in the caudal fin of the young form a long and
filiform prolongation, which disappears with adolescence, the tail often becoming
lunated. The number of lamina? in the sucker is variable, as are also the fin rays
and the roughness or the reverse of the tongue. They are inhabitants of nearly
all the temperate and tropical seas, and are most usually captured adhering to
sharks. Van Beneden has pointed out that, as they do not prey upon the fishes
to which they are indebted for house room and the means of locomotion from
one place to another, they cannot be termed "parasites;" so he named them
"commensals" or "messmates," which may be either adherent to other animals or
else free swimmers. An example of a true parasitic fish exists in our seas in the
" myxine " or " hag," which burrows into and feeds upon the flesh of other
fishes. But the sucker of the Echeneis, by which it maintains its hold, is placed
on the upper surface of the head, and is evidently a modified first dorsal fin, as
was first observed by Voigt. It is flat, of an oval shape, and composed of
transverse lamina? directed backwards and having a tooth-like posterior margin
to each, supported by these are a modified dorsal spine which having divided
into two vertical halves becomes bent outwards to the right and left side, and
forms a support to the lamina? ; while along its central line a smooth but
narrow elevation extends, so that a vacuum may when desirable be restricted to
one-half of the disk. The most anterior of these transverse lamina? are directed
slightly forwards, and the posterior slightly backwards. External to this disk,
and encircling its whole margin, is a wide fleshy membrane. This apparatus acts
as a sucker similarly to the leather plaything employed when moist by schoolboys
for the purpose of being attached to a stone or other flat substance. As the
anatomical characters of this disk have been fully explained by several authors,
further remarks upon it appear to be unnecessary.

When the accounts of the wonderful power of this sucking fish were first
credited it is impossible to say, but they certainly are found in Ovid and Pliny.
The names Echeneis and Bemora have been given this fish in consequence of its
possessing a sucker, and the uses to which it has been supposed to be put the
first, by the Greeks, being a word composed of two others, signifying a fish which
retards or arrests the progress of a ship. The Latin term similarly implies delay,
and, though doubtless it was given for the identical reason for which the Greeks
employed their designation, it seems to have likewise had another meaning.
Meeting one of these fish while bathing during the progress of a love or law suit,
or any business that required despatch, was considered a bad omen. Buckland
observed that this fish figures as a symbol of prudence in an Oxford chapel
window. " Prudence " carrying " upon her right arm an arrow joined with a
remora, a fish that fixes itself to the bottom of ships and retards their progress."

SC0MBRIDJ3. 107

The arrow represents quickness, the remora slowness, while prudence is supposed
to be the medium or unknown quantity. Pliny, whose imagination was very
vivid, has left some curious records of what the sucking fish was believed to
accomplish in his days. The version is that of one of our old translators,
Philemon Holland. " One little fish, not above half a foot long, is able to arrest
and stay per force, yea, and hold as prisoners, our goodly tall and proud ships,
so well armed in the beake-head with yron pikes and brasen tines ; so offensive
and dangerous to bouge and pierce any enemie ship which they do encountre.
Certes, reported it is, that in the naval battaile before Actium, wherein Antonius
and Cleopatra the queene were defeited by Augustus, one of these fishes staled
the admirall ship wherein M. Antonius was, at what time as he made all the hast
and meanes he could devise with help of ores to encourage his people from ship to
ship, and could not prevaile, untill he was forced to abandon the said admirall
and go into another galley. . . . Of late daies also, and within our remembrance,
the like happened to the roiall ship of the emperor Caius Caligula, at what time
as he rowed back and maide saile from Astura to Antium, when and where this
little fish detained his ship, and (as it fell out afterwards) presaged an unfortunate
event thereby. . . . And yet it was not long ere the cause of this wonderful
staie of his ship was knowne : for as soon as ever the vessel (and a galliace it
was, furnished with five bankes of ores to a side) was perceived alone in the
fleete to stand still, presentlie a number of tall fellows leapt out of their ships
into the sea to search what the reason might be that it stirred not ; and
found one of these fishes sticking fast to the very helm." He tells us how Caius
Caligula fumed, and was unable to comprehend how a little sucking-fish could
withstand the power of four hundred oars. Recent authors, who attach but
small credit to the accuracy of such traditions, have attributed the procrastination
of Mark Antony to the loadstone of Cleopatra's eyes, which perhaps, more than
the sucking-fish, occasioned delay ; while they have also asserted that inebriation in
Caligula's rowers sufficiently accounts for his fuming, and explains why the
vessel was unable to make way.

Not only were these ancient authors adepts at marvellous descriptions respect-
ing the attributes of these fishes, but even Commerson, and some later writers
have drawn largely upon the credulity of then* readers, asserting that along the
coasts of Mosambique they are employed for the purpose of capturing turtle.
A ring is stated to be fixed round the fish's tail, and to this a cord is made fast ;
thus ready for use, the Echeneis is placed in a vessel of sea-water, which having
been embarked in a boat, the rowers proceed on a turtle hunt. As soon as one is
seen sleeping on the ocean, they row gently towards it ; when sufficiently near,
they cast the sucking-fish into the sea, which was said to attach itself to the object
of their search and with such tenacity that both can be drawn into the boat !
Commerson likewise asserted that the sucker of one of these fishes being applied
to his thumb, it became perfectly numbed, and continued thus for some con-
siderable time.

The sucking-fish, although capable of spasmodic active exertions, appears to
generally lead an inactive life, trusting to its host to convey it to the localities
suitable for obtaining food. It does not seem to find the vicinity of the shore or
the presence of brackish waters agreeable, preferring the open seas, although not
infrequently observed in harbours. Some hundreds sometimes affix themselves
to one vessel, and when the washings of the cook's coppers are thrown overboard,
they shoot off in a body to pick up the particles of grease which discolour the
water. They also consume less savoury matters that drop from a ship, and may
be caught with a very small hook buried in a pellet of fat. (Richardson, Ich.
Chiua and Japan, p. 204.) Yan Beneden has observed that they eat small fish,
while they themselves occasionally form food for sailors, who are not always
particular as to the quality of the articles upon which they make a repast.
Lutken (Vidd. Medd. 1877, p. 242) has observed that Echeneis lineata attaches
itself especially to Sphyroena barracuda as E. remora does to Carcharias lamia.

108 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Echeneis remora, Plate XXXIX, fig 2.

Exe'V'G, Plutarch, Sympos. lib. ii ; Oppian, Halieut. i, p. 9. <&0ap, Aristot.
Hist.

Echeneis, Ovid, Hal. v, 99 ; Pliny, xxii, c. 1, ix, c. 25 ; vElian, i, c. 36, iii, c. 17 ;
Wotton, De Differ, p. 149. Remora, Rondel, xv, c. 18, p. 436 ; Petiver, Gazopliyl.
t. xliv, f . 12 ; Jonston, de Pise. lib. i, tit. 1, c. ii, art. iv, p. 16, t. iv, f . 3 ; Ray,
p. 71. Zuiger, Nieidioff, Brass. Zee-en Lant-Reize, ii, p. 274, f. 67. Remora
imperati, Willughby, Appendix, p. 5, t. ix, f. 2. Sucking -fish, Edward's
Gleanings, No. 210. Mediterranean Remora, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1812) iii,
p. 524. Echeneis, sp. Klein, MSS. iv, p. 51, No. 1 ; Gronov. Zoopli. p. 75, No.
256, and Mus. Ich. i, No. 33 ; Duharnel, Peches, ii, Sect. 4, p. 56, pi. iv, f . 5.

Echeneis remora, Linn. Syst. i, p. 446, and Amcen. Acad, i, p. 320, and Mns. Reg.
Ad. Frid. i, p. 75 ; Osbeck, Voy. China, p. 94 ; Schcepff, Schrift. Gesel. Xat.
Ereunde Berlin, viii, 3, p. 145 ; Bloch, t. clxxii ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1187 ; Lacep. iii,
pp. 146, 147, t. ix, f . 1 ; Bl. Schn. p. 240 ; Blumenb. Abbild, t. lxxviii ; Bonna-
terre, p. 57, pi. xxxlii, f. 123; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 201, pi. xxxi ; Risso, Ich.
Xice, p. 177, and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 269 ; Mull. Prod. Faun. Dan. Xo. 361 ;
Mitch. Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Xew York, i, p. 378 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 94 ;
Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. p. 265 ; Faber, Fische Islands, p. 115 ; Temm. and
Schlegel, Fauna Japon. Poiss. p. 271 ; De Kay, Xew York Fauna, Fishes, p. 309 ;
Bonap. Pesc. Eur. p. 66 ; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 16 ; Bennett, Whaling
Voyage, p. 271 ; Jenyns, Voy. Beagle, Fish. p. 142, and Man. Vert. p. 473 ;
Thompson, Mag. Xat. Hist. (2) 1846, p. 314, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 222
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 377, c. fig. (Ed. 3) i, p. 671 ; White, Catal.
Brit. Fishes, p. 56 ; Giinther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1860, p. 390, Catal. ii,
p. 378, and Fische Gode. Mus. Heft, v, p. 156 ; Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil.
1864, p. 60; Couch, Journ. Roy. Soc. Corn. 1867, p. 361 ; Kner, Novara Fische,
p. 146 ; Bleeker, Madagascar, p. 99 ; Day, Fishes of India, p. 258 ; Moreau, Poiss.
France, ii, p. 535, c. fig.

Echeneis squalipeta, Dald. Nat. Selskab. ii, p. 157; Bl. Schn. p. 240; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 377 (young).

Echeneis naucrates, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 270.

Echeneis jacobea and pallida, Lowe, Pro. Zoo. Soc. 1839, p, 89, and Trans.
Zool. Soc. iii, pp. 16, 17.

Echeneis remoroides, Bleeker, Batoe, ii, p. 70.

Echeneis par v a, Gronov. ed Gray, p. 92.

? Echeneis horboniensis, Guich. in Maillard Reunion, Appen. p. 19.

Remora, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 113, pi. lxxxviii.

Remora tropica, Murray, Edinb. New. Phil. Journ. 1856, iv. p. 287.

B. vii, D. 17-18/22-24. P. 20-24. V. 1/5. A. 22-25. C. 19. Ccec. pyl. 6-8.
Vert. 12/15.

Length of head 4^ to 4^-, including disk 3, of disk alone 3-|-, of caudal fin 6,
height of body 7 to 9, of ventrals 7\ to 8J, breadth between pectoral fins 6 to 6^
in the total length. Eye placed in the middle of the length of the head, 3^ to
3^ diameters from the end of the snout, and 5 apart. Its direction is downwards,
having its upper edge most projecting. Mouth rounded ; lower jaw the longer ;
the posterior extremity of the maxilla does not quite reach to beneath the front
edge of the eye. Teeth present in a band in either jaw, that on the lower being
the wider ; also present on the vomer, palatine bones, and tongue. Fins the disk
or modified first dorsal fin is placed on the upper surface of the head and occiput,
is nearly half as wide as long, containing from 17 to 18 transverse lamina?, each
of which has a rough tooth-like posterior edge, while along its centre runs a
narrow smooth elevation enabling the vacuum to be confined to one-half of the
disk. The most anterior lamina? are directed slightly forward, the posterior more
backward, while the intervening ones have an intermediate direction. External to
this disk is a wide fleshy membrane which reaches posteriorly to beyond the

SCOMBRIMJ. 109

occiput, while anteriorly it just extends to the upper jaw. Second dorsal opposite
and similar to the anal. Pectoral broad, its upper rays the longer. Caudal
emarginate. Colours grayish brown, sometimes becoming lighter on the sides
and beneath.

Varieties. Lowe's Echeneis jacobcea, includes such forms as possess a truncated
caudal tin, and E. pallida those in which the tongue is rough, a somewhat
uncommon modification but having no specific value any more than has the form
of the tail fin. Grunther (Zool. Record, 1864, p. 155) suggests that E. remeligo,
A. Dumeril, is probably an example of this species. Colour Commerson observed
that when many of these fishes are seen attached to one object it is not uncommon
to see one or two which differ from the rest in being of a whitish colour.

Names. Aristotle's name for this fish signifies "a louse," and which he
observed was found on the dolphin. Withal, 1608, terms this fish suchstone,
a designation more appropriate to the " lamprey," which was perhaps intended,
as the Echeneis has very rarely been captured in Britain.

Habits. Commerson asserted that it swims with its back downwards, but Sir
J. Richardson remarked that its motions are wriggling like those of an eel,
swimming with considerable velocity, and able to overtake with ease a vessel
going before a brisk gale. Bennett says it merely swims round the body it
attends, and only fixes on it occasionally and for a very short time. Cornish
observes that it injures the skin of the shark to which it is attached (Zoologist,
1880, p. 2225) ; Schcepf accounting for its presence in various parts of the
world, mentions having seen it taken from several vessels recently arrived at
New York. De Kay alludes to an example captured a considerable distance
up the Hudson River, while Catesby remarks upon observing sucking-fishes
disengaged and swimming very deliberately near a shark's mouth without its
attempting to swallow them, the reason for which he felt himself unable to give.

Means of capture. Sailors are said to sometimes take these fish by means
of a bait of fat enclosing: a small hook.

Uses. The Malays consider this fish powerful manure for fruit trees.

Habitat. Both sides of the Atlantic, the Mediterranean where it is rare,
the Pacific Ocean, East and West Indies. In Europe it has been captured so far
north as Iceland (Olafsen) and Denmark, but is rare in British waters, which
is somewhat remarkable as the blue shai'k to which it elsewhere attaches
itself is not uncommon along our shores. Perhaps the temperature of the
water is too low for its requirements. In the British seas it is evidently a mere
wanderer, which has been brought attached to a whale, large fish, or some
floating object which afford him house room and water carriage to climes
scarcely best adapted to his i-equirenients, but from whence a return conveyance
may be difficult to obtain.

The number of instances in which captures of this fish have been recorded
from the seas of Great Britain and Ireland are but few.* Turton, in his
" British Fauna," observes, " taken by the author in Swansea from the back
of a cod-fish in the summer of 1806." Mr. Dillwyn, in his " Fauna of Swansea,"
entertained doubts respecting the accuracy of Turton's assertion, having " strong
grounds for believing that there was some mistake about it." In July, 1848,
one was captured at Clontarf, Dublin Bay, adhering to the gills of a blue
shark, Carcharias glaucus, ten feet long, which had been observed in shallow
water and driven ashore the previous night. A second remora was attached to
the gills on the opposite side, but when disturbed it disappeared inwards by
the bronchial orifices, and was not seen again. Mr. Dunn obtained a specimen
(which he gave Mr. Couch) in 1867 from a blue shark taken eighteen (miles off
Deadman's, near Mevagissey. In the British Museum Catalogue one is thus
alluded to : " Half-grown. Guernsey. Presented by Mrs. Mauger." Likewise
two others, also half -grown, from an unknown locality, received from the same
donor. Without further information, Couch's incredulity as to the first having
come from Guernsey may be a not unmerited criticism.

* For an instance of taking one of these fishes in a bottle at the Noie, see Introduction.

110 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family, X STROMATEIDJC, Swamson.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchise present. Body oblong
or slightly elongated and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. No
osseous articulation between the infraorbital bones and the preopercle. Small
teeth in the jaws, palate edentulous: barbed teeth extend into the oesophagus.
A single elongated dorsal fin without any distinct spinous division in the adult :
ventrals, when present, thoracic. No prominent papilla near the vent. Air-
bladder small when present. Pyloric appendages few, in moderate numbers, or
many. Vertebrae exceed 10/14.

Geographical distribution. Pelagic and littoral forms, which are found in most
of the tropical and temperate seas.

Genus I. Centeolophus, Lacepede.

Pompilus, Lowe.

Branchiostegals seven : pseud 'obranchios present. Cleft of mouth of moderate
depth or rather small. A band of small teeth in the jaws, absent from vomer,
palatines, and tongue. A single elongated dorsal fin, without any distinct spinous
division : it and the anal have a scaly base. Air-bladder small. Pyloric appendages
nine or ten.

Geographical distribution. Mediterranean, coasts of the British Isles and
Prance to Madeira ; also found in Peru, as G. Peruanus, Steind., in the South
Pacific Ocean.

1. Centrolophus Britanicus, Plate XL, fig 1.

Centrolophus britanicus, Giinther, Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1860, July,
p. 46, and Catal. Fish. Brit. Mus. li, p. 402

Cornish centrolophus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 127, plate xci.

B. vii, D. 46, P. ?, V. 1/5, A. 30, C. 17.

Length of head about 6, of caudal fin 6^, height of body 3f in the total length.
Eye 4 diameters in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 2 apart. Judging from the unique example, which is a badly stuffed
specimen, the profile from the dorsal fin to the snout is only slightly more convex
than that of the inferior surface of the head. The posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the anterior margin of the eye. Fins dorsal
commences on a vertical line above the base of the pectoral and reaches to about
the distance of half the length of the head from the base of the caudal, the
length of its base being equal to about 6/11 of the entire length of the fish :
anal commences below the middle of the dorsal fin and extends to the same
distance from the tail, the extent of its base equalling 2/7 of the entire length
of the fish. Pectoral and ventrals very short, having been " much mutilated
from injury when cast on shore." Caudal forked. Scales small ; they form a
sheath to the basal two-thirds of the dorsal and anal fins. Lateral-line at first
forms rather a considerable curve. Colours of an uniform brownish-pink ;
lighter on the lower surface ; the fins, especially the caudal, being of a still
deeper tinge than the back.

The history of this supposed unique example of Centrolophus is remarkable,
for the proportions have been entirely altered by the person who mounted the
specimen, and Coach's illustration and the description in tbe British Museum
Catalogue have followed the stuffed fish. Couch fortunately measured it prior
to sending it to be stuffed, and recorded that its length was " one foot seven

STROMATEID^E. Ill

inches," ..." the vent at about the middle of the body." This measurement, as
will be seen by his figure, does not include the caudal fin, while at the vent it was
" five inches in depth." He mentions having made a drawing of the fish before
it was preserved, which probably had solely allusion to its colours, as the figure
in the " Fishes of the British Isles " is evidently taken from the stuffed one. If
reference is made to the specimen in its present state at the British Museum
its length will be found to have increased from 19 inches, as it was when
captured, to 22 inches as it is now when mounted, or 3 inches too long, which
length can only have been obtained at the expense of its height. Above the
vent at the centre of its length, instead of its height being 5/19 of the total,
it is about 5/22, and this disproportion is still further augmented in Couch's
figure where it is about 5/26. If, as stated in the British Museum Catalogue, the
height of the body is 5 in the total (when according to Couch the body was
5 inches high), the length of the entire fish should have been 25 inches,
whereas it was merely 19.

Habitat. This unique example was thrown on the shore not far from Looe,
in Cornwall, in the middle of February, 1859, when it came into Mr. Couch's
possession, and was presented by him to the British Museum where I drew
my figure from the specimen giving the length of the head and fin rays as
existing, but reducing the stretched skin to what obtained when recently
captured. The mouth seems a little distorted, and the fin rays in many
instances are broken. The specimen, in short, has been injured by its captor,
broken by its preserver, and is somewhat deteriorated by age.

2. Centrolophus pompilus, Plate XL, fig 2.

Pompilus, Rondel, viii, c, 14, p. 250, c. fig. ; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p, 753 ; Aldr.
iii, c. 19, p. 325 ; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, tit. i, c. 2, art. ii, p. 14, t. iii, f. 5 ;
Ray, p. 101. Pompilus rondeletii, Will. p. 215, t. 0. 1, f. 6. The blade fish, Jago
in Borlase, Cornwall, p. 271, t. xxvi, f. 8. Black ruffe, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(Ed. 1) iii, p. 260 (Ed. 2) iii, p. 228. Merle, Duhamel, Peches, ii, Sect, iv, p. 37,
pi. vi, f. 2.

Goryphcena pompilus, Artedi, Gen. 16, syn. 29 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1193 ;
Bonuaterre, p. 60, pi. xxxiv, f. 130 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 180.

Perca nigra, Gmel. Linn. p. 1321.

Holocentrus niger, Lacep. iv, pp. 330, 357 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 558.

Centrolophus niger, Lacep. iv, pp. 441, 442, pi. x, f. 2.

Centrolophus pompilus, Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 334, pi. eclxix ; Yarrell, Bi'it. Fish.
(Ed. 1) i, p. 158, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 247 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 247 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111.
Poiss. pi. lxv ; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. c. fig.; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss.
p. 63; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 39; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 403 ; Canestr. Fauna
Ital. p. 105; Andrews, Proc. R. Dub. Soc. vi, p. 68; Giglioli, Cat. Pesc. Ital.
p. 26 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 492, c. fig.

Acentrolophus maculosiis, Nardo, Prod. Ich. Adr. sp. 62.

Centrolophus liparis, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 336 ; Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 345.

Centrolophus morio, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 342.

Coryphcena morio, Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 370.

Pompilus rondeletii, Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 81.

Black fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 123, pi. xc.

B.vi. D. 38-41, P. 21, V. 1/5, A. 23-25, C. 17. Ccec. pyl. 6-0, Vert. 11/14.

Length of head 5, of caudal fin 5 to 5j, height of body 4 to 5 in the total
length. Eye which has a sort of skinny lid, is rather high up, diameter 31 to 4
in the length of the head, and 3/4 to 1 diameter apart. Snout rather obtuse
and slightly projecting over the upper jaw. Jaws of nearly equal length
anteriorly, and reaching posteriorly to beneath the first third of the orbit.
The profile from the dorsal fin to the snout is slightly concave over the occiput.
Teeth minute ones in the jaws. Fins the dorsal commence? on a vertical line
above the first third of the pectoral fin, the length of its base equalling from

112 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

2f to 3 in that of the entire length of the fish, the first few rays are nnbranched
and weak, the highest portion of the fin is in its first third. Pectoral two-thirds
as long as the head : ventral slightly shorter. Anal commences beneath the
middle, and the length of its base is about equal in extent to half that of the
dorsal fin. Caudal deeply forked. Scales small, they form a sheath to the
basal half or third of the vertical fins. Lateral-line forms a gradual carve to
opposite the end of the pectoral fin, when it proceeds direct to the base of the
caudal. The length of the caudal peduncle equals about two-thirds of that of
the head, while the height of its base is from If to 2 in that of its length.
Colours these vary, generally being of an uniform brown, lightest beneath :
some irregular cloudy longitudinal and sinuous markings on the body, and some
oblong light spots along the sides, and dark ones on the fins : these markings in
some are yellow, while others have none. Risso says that the young (which are
taken during the spring) have dark transverse bands.

The history of this marine species is interesting, as showing how known forms
have become overlooked and new names substituted for old ones. No reasonable
doubt can exist against its being the Pompilus of the Mediterranean, described by
Rondelet, who in 1554 published a recognizable figure. It was subsequently
adverted to by Gesner 1558, Aldrovandus 1638, Jonston 1649, Willughby 1686,
Pay 1713, and others : several of these authors likewise giving representations.
The first British examples recorded are by Borlase, in his "Natural History of
Cornwall," in which (copying from the MSS. of the deceased Mr. Jago) he
observes, " two were taken at Loo, May 26th, 1721, in the Sean, near the shore
on sandy ground, with small ore-weed in the pot." The examples reached
16 inches in length, and Borlase by an error gives its width at " 3/4 of an inch,"
instead of from " 3 4 inches," whether the mistake was his or the printers is not
very material as the figure is distinctly that of the Pompilus, and the proportions
good. Pennant, in 1776, not recognizing Jago's description and figure, introduced
the species into his " British Zoology " under the name of the "Black Ruffe"
or " Black-fish of Mr. Jago," subsequently in his second edition, published in
1812, he termed it the " Black Perch," evidently in deference to Shaw, who in his
turn had followed Lacepede. This last author in his " Histoire naturelle des
Poissons" (1798-1803) had identified the "Black-fish," written " Blaufish," in
the British Zoology, with Perca nigra of Linnaeus, as had been previously pointed
out by Gmelin in his edition of that author, dated 1788 (although he added
his doubt whether it were not a variety of the fresh- water Ruffe). Risso in
1810 describes it in his " Ichthyology of Nice:" while Fleming in his "History
of British Animals," published in 1828, and, following Gmelin's doubts, places
Jago's sea-fish as an appendix to the fresh-water Ruffe, Perca cernua, designating
the representation given by Borlase as a " manufactured figure." In 1830 and
1831 Couch re-discovered the species on the Cornish coast. In 1833 Cuvier and
Valenciennes, in their magnificent work on fish, describe the "Black-fish" in
detail, adding an excellent figure, as well as criticising the synonymy ; since that
time but little further information has been acquired respecting the species.

Habits. Obscure, but it is said to attend vessels like the " Pilot fish," hence
Rondelet named it after the term employed by the ancients, Pompilus, a fish
held sacred on account of its friendship to man. Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey,
observed respecting an example captured in 1872 that it was the fourth of its
kind known to have been taken at that place, and all in mackerel nets. In each
instance they seemed to be acting the part of " pilot fishes " to some varieties of
shark which had been entangled in the nets close by.

Baits. But little is known respecting their food, the first two specimens
taken in Cornwall were captured in pots baited with ore- weed, but they will eat
flesh, as Couch remarks upon one being taken with a slice of mackerel used for a
bait, while in its stomach were found " a mussel without a shell and a piece of
flesh of a sea-bream, both these substances probably having been snatched from
the hooks of fishermen.

Breeding. Risso says that the eggs are deposited in the autumn : and the
young (which have dark transverse bands) are captured in the spring.

STROMATEID^. 113

As food. This fish does not appear to be held in any estimation in the
Mediterranean, but those which have been eaten along the British coasts have
been reported as of excellent flavour, their flesh being white, soft, and flaky.

Habitat. The Mediterranean, where, although common off Nice, it is
generally rare : occasional wanderers appear off the British Isles, and in the
Atlantic as far south as Madeira. It occurs along the coasts of France, the south
coast of England, and one straggler was taken off Northumberland, another off
Yorkshire. An example has likewise been recorded off the south coast of Iroland.

As previously observed, the two first taken in these isles were captured at Looe,
May 26th, 1721. Since that time Couch mentions one which was taken in
November, 1830, in a floating net set for salmon, and such was the force exerted
by this fish that it carried the net before it over the head rope, when it fell into
the folds and became entangled. A second is referred to by the same author as
caught near Polperro in 1831, on a handline baited with a slice of mackerel.
Another came with a ship into the harbour of St. Ives, and while there suffered
itself to be caught with a gaff from a boat alongside. In 1841, one 14 inches
in length was taken at Lossiemouth. August 27, 1850, one was taken at Falmouth
in a drift net, in which it was entangled by the teeth. Mr. Alder, in his address to
the " Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club," 1850, records one captured at Cullercoats
in Northumberland, and which was placed in the museum. Rudd (Zoologist,
1852, p. 3504) observes that one was taken at Redcar, in Yorkshire. In February,
1857, one was obtained near Penzance, while R. Couch records another, 9 inches
long, which came into his possession in the autumn of the same year. June 11th,

1870, two were captured in a trammel or flue-net set in Mount's Bay. In

1871, Mr. Andrews mentions one taken off the Irish coast. In July, 1872,
Mr. Gatcome remarks (Zoologist, 1872, p. 3236) one 12| inches long and 3| deep,
was taken in a mackerel net off Deadman, it appeared to have followed
a large Porbeagle shark, which was captured in the same net at a few feet distance.
June 15th, 1877, one was taken in a seine off Babbicombe, near Torquay (Gosse,
Zool.). In August, 1878, one 22 inches long and 4 lb. weight, was taken in a
trammel off Helford. Doubtless many other examples which have not been
recorded have been captured along the south coast. Mr. Dunn observes that he has
known about a dozen taken at Mevagissey, and every one could be traced to be
following or near a large fish, generally a shark. Not long since a shark entered the
harbour and when leaving it passed some small boats moored near the pier head.
When the tide ebbed the boats grounded in a pool, and close by the keel of one
a black-fish was taken. It was supposed that it had mistaken the boat for its
companion.

The specimen, figured life size, is in the British Museum collection. This
fish attains to at least 3 feet in length. Professor Cliglioli was good enough
to send me an example, 30 inches long, from the coast of Italy.

8

114 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family, XI CORYPELENIME (part), Swainson.

Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchige present or absent. Body
oblong 1 , or elevated and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. No
osseous articulation between the infraorbital bones and the preopercle. Teeth
in the jaws small, present or absent on the palate, none in the oesophagus.
A single elongated dorsal fin without any distinct spinous division in the adult :
ventrals thoracic (jugular in Pteraclis). No prominent papilla near the vent.
Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages few or many. Vertebrae
exceed 10/14.

Geographical distribution,. Cosmopolitan and pelagic, and though chiefly
confined to tropical and temperate seas, some are found in high northern latitudes.

Genus I. Brama (Schneider) Risso.

Taraxes, Lowe (Young). Pterycombus, Fries {Young).

Branchiostegals seven : jiseudobranchice well developed. Body elevated and
compressed. Cleft of mouth oblique : lower jaw the longer. Operates entire.
Teeth in the jaws, the outer row being much the strongest: deciduous ones on the
vomer and palatines. Dorsal fin many rayed, the first three or four being spines;
anal with two spines and similar to dorsal. Ventrals small and thoracic. Caudal
deeply forked. Scales extended on to the head, and vertical fins. Air-bladder absent.
Pyloric appendages few.

Taraxes, Lowe, was considered by Poey (An. Soc. Esp. v. p. 148) to be probably
the young of this species. Liitken (Spolia Atlantica) has observed that smooth
or spinate scales in these fishes may be symptomatic of age, not of distinct species,
much less of genera.

Geographical distribution. These pelagic forms are found from the Faroe Isles
in the north, where they are represented by Brama Eayii, which extends south-
wards, being common in parts of the Mediterranean and found in the Atlantic as
far south as the Cape of Good Hope. B. longipinnis, Lowe, which may be
B. Baschii, Esmark, seems (if a distinct species) to extend from the Baltic to
Madeira. The nearly allied B. Japonica, Hilgendorf, has been taken at Chili,
New Zealand, and also in the more northern Japan. Whether B. Dussumieri, c. v,
and B. Orcini, c. v, are not the young of this last species appears very questionable.
This genus extends throughout most of the temperate and tropical seas of
Western Europe and Africa : also the Pacific Ocean, but does not appear to have
been recorded from the eastern coast of America, although the nearly allied
form of Pteraclis has been obtained off Carolina.

1. Brama Raii, Plate XLI.

Brama marina, Willughby, App. p. 17, t. V. 12 ; Ray, Syn. Pise. p. 115 ;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 210. Castaguole, Duhamel, Peches, iii, p. 26, pi. v, f. 1.
Toothed gilt head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 177(5) iii, p. 243, pi. xliii (Ed. 2, 1812)
iii, p. 331, pi. liv; Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. vii, p. 292.

Sjyarus raii, Bloch, t. eclxxiii ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xxxvii ; Shaw, Zool.
iv, p. 404.

corypelenim:. 115

Spams brama, Bon. Enc. Ich. p. 104, pi. 1. f. 102.

Brama rail, Bl. Sclm. p. 09 ; Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 433 ; Cuv. and Val.
vii, p. 281, pi. cxc; Hogg, Mag. Nat. Hist. [, 1829, p. 277, and Nat. Hist. Stock,
on Tees, p. 20 ; Scouler, M. N. Hist, vi, 1833, p. 529 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 359 ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Ed. 1) i, p. 117, c. fig-. (Ed. 2) i, p. 133 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 165;
Johnston, Berwickshire N. H. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 171 ; Parnell, Fish. Firth
of Forth, p. 49, and Mem. Wern. Soc. vii, p. 209 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p 214 ; Lowe,
Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 8 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 56 ; White, Catal.
Brit. Fish. p. 28 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, "iv, p. 92 ; Giinther, Catal. ii,
p. 408 ; Schlegel, De Dieren Ned. p. 16, pi. i, f . 6 ; Couch, Zoologist, 1849,
Append, p. xxviii, c. fig. ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 25 ; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 46 : Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andraw's, p. 173 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. 1879,
p. 14; Liitken, Spol. Atlan. 1880, p. 190, pi. iv, fig. 1, 2 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
ii, p. 487, c. fig.

Lepodus saragus, Rafin. Cai'atteri di al. Nuov. Gen. p. 53, No. 144.

Sparits castaneola, Lacep. iv, p. 110 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 424 ; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 248.

Sparus niger, Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 98.

Chcetodon timbratus, Cabrera, Machado's Catal. Pece de Cadix, p. 23.

? Chcetodon, sp. Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 78.

Ray's bream, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 12.), pi. xcii.

B. vii, D. 3-4/29-34, P. 19-23, V. 1/5, A. ^ T l^, C. 19, L. 1. 80-95, L. tr. 14/23.
Coec. pyl. 5, Vert. 16/26.

Length of head 4.^ to 5, of caudal fin 4|- to 4.|, height of body 3 in the total
length. Eye situated in nearly the middle of the h eight of the head : diameter
3| to 4 in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, the
interorbital space forming a high crest. Body high and very compi^essed, with a
strongly curved anterior profile : its greatest height being below the origin of the
dorsal fin. Cleft of mouth oblique, the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaching to beneath the middle of the orbit: lower jaw rather prominent.
Posterior nostril resembles a slit just in front of the middle of the oi-bit :
anterior one round and patent. Teeth an outer curved row of pointed and
rather distant ones in the upper jaw, much larger than those of the inner series ;
in the lower jaw one or two rows of conical, pointed, and rather curved ones, of
which two or three somewhat resemble canines : in a fine row on the palatine
bones and vomer, but which, being deciduous, are often absent: none on the
tongue. Fins dorsal spines lower than the anterior rays, which are the highest
in the anterior portion of the fin : the anal commences on a vertical line beneath
the fourth or fifth dorsal ray, and is otherwise similar to that fin. Pectoral
reaches to at least half the length of the base of the anal. Ventral short, with
a large basal scale. Caudal deeply forked. Scales cover body and head
(excluding the vertical limb of the preopercle, supraorbital space, and
snout) also the rays of the vertical fins. The length of the intestinal tract
equals about half the distance from the snout to the base of the caudal fin.
its rectal portion large and with thickened walls. Cazcal appendage* five.
Colours appear subject to considerable variation. The upper portion of the
head and body is mostly of a dark blue, having a tinge of bronze on the
snout; while the sides of the body are bluish, shot with purple, and becoming
almost white beneath. Dorsal and anal fins of a light colour, having a narrow
black edge : outer margin of caudal fin dark.

The young of this species as observed by Liitken, 1. c. when only half
grown, have the scales furnished with a spine on the anterior portion of the
uncovered part of each, and which does not disappear until the fish approaches
its adult development. Also in the very young, as about 6/10 of an inch long,
the tail fin is only moderately forked and the dorsal fin commences nearer
the head than in the adult, while both it and the anal are comparatively
much higher, being equal in their highest portion to two-thirds or half the
height of the body of the fish. But as the examples grow larger the caudal tin

8 *

116 ACANTH0PTERYGI1.

becomes more forked and the dorsal and anal by degrees take on the adult
characters.

Varieties. Couch supposed that one of his examples might be a new species
or differing from the ordinary form.

Names. Thomps< n observes that this fish was called hen-fish in Ireland,
a term applied to such as are of somewhat rare occurrence. La castagnole,
French.

Habits. Gregarious in small companies, and probably lives in deep waters
in cold climes, and may be in that which is shallower where the air is not so cold.
Johnston says, " I have seen two specimens only, cast on shore after a storm,
and the Reverend Mr. Baird has seen another which had suffered a similar
wreck on the shore below Cocksburnpath."

Means of capture. The rule appears to have obtained that a large proportion
of these fishes taken in this country have been met with dead after storms or
in a dying state, as if they had become subject to some extraneous influence
when wandering beyond their legitimate home. Couch, however, obtained one
that was taken by a bait : while in the Mediterranean, according to Risso, this
mode of capture is employed in May, June, and December.

Breeding. Risso says it spawns in summer.

As food. Valued for this purpose in the Mediterranean, its flesh being
considered wholesome, especially during the winter months.

Habitat. This fish has been obtained in the Faroes, and does not appear
to be very rare on the south and west of Sweden, but seems always to have
been obtained during or after stormy weather. In five instances, from 1825
to 1850, all were captured between November 1st and December 15th, but
such dates certainly do not apply to recorded British examples. It is more
common on the French coast and in the Mediterranean, where it appears to be
locally abundant, as at Genoa, while one specimen in the British Museum came
from the Cape of Good Hope.

Ray gave the first account of this fish, having obtained a description and
figure of one left dead on the tide receding in Middlesburgh Marsh at the mouth
of the Tees in Yorkshire, September 18th, 1681 : the example came into the
possession of Dr. Johnson. The largest number of British examples have been
taken on the north of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

In 1792, one taken at St. Andrew's was sent to the Edinburgh Museum
and subsequently came into Donovan's possession. Montagu recorded it from
Devonshire : Turton remarks on one taken at Swansea, November 12th, 1806.
In 1821, Hogg mentioned one found at Stockton-upon-Tees. "Miss Gurney in
her Diary (Trans. Norwich Nat. Hist. Soc. ii, p. 19) says that one of these fish
was found after a storm on Cromer beach in October, 1821. She made an
accurate coloured sketch of this fish, which was full sized" (J. Southwell, MSS.).
In 18-14, Rudd (Zool. iii, p. 833) observed upon tln^ee from Redcar, all found on
the beach during the autumn, and on December 2nd, 1850, two more were cast
ashore at the same place (Zool. 1851, p. 3010). Mr. Do well saw one in Norwich,
January 25th, 1847, which was taken at Yadmo." In 1850 one was similarly
th'-own up at Norwich (Gurney, Zool. 1851, p. 3058), and during the same winter
several were found in the Firth of Forth (Logan, Zool. p. 3058). October 24th,
1851, one taken in Gamrie harbour contained large ova, it was pushing its way
inwards against a receding tide (G. Harris, Zool. p. 33U1). R. Couch (Zool. 1846,
p. 1406) says, "two specimens have been taken at Polperro, and the late Mr.
Chirgwin informed me that one had been taken near the Runnel stone."
duly 4th, 1866, Mr. Clogg (Zool. p. 349) recorded one washed ashore at Liskeard.
Buckland mentioned an example of 4h lb. weight which he received from
Northumberland in 1868. July 10th, 1874, Mr. Cornish remarked (Zool. p. 4266)
that one was found nearly dead on the beach near Penzance, and he subsequently
recorded that on June 12th. 1875, as a heavy gale was abating, one was captured
in an exhausted state floundering about in the same locality, while in its stomach
was a cuttle fish about 4 inches long (Zool. 1875, p. 4542). Edward states.it
to be rare in Banffshire : while Scolder considered it to be not uncommon on the

CORYPH^NID^E.

117

west coast of Scotland : and Parnell remarked that it lias occurred frequently in
the Firth of Forth, two or three specimens from thence being in the College
Museum at Edinburgh.

In Ireland doubts have been cast upon the authenticity of McSkimmim's
Carrickfergus specimen : Dr. Burkitt, of Waterford, gave an example taken at
Tranmore, in October, 1843, to the Museum at Trinity College, Dublin.

For the example figured, 1/3 of the natural size, I am indebted to Dr.
Hubrecht, of Leyden. It is said to attain to 2| feet in length. Yarrell
mentions that one of those cast ashore at Redcar, in 1851, was 22j inches
loner.

SCHEDOFHTLCS MEDUSOPHAGUS.

118 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II. Lampris, Betzius.

Chrysostosus, Lacepede.

Branchiostegals seven. Body oval, elevated, and compressed. Mouth terminal,
protractile, ami with a shallow cleft. Opercular pieces entire. Teeth absent from
the mouth. A single, many-rayed, dorsal fin destitute of spines : anal with less rays
limn tl i e dorsal and also spineless. Ventrals elongated and many rayed. Scales small
and. very deciduous. Air-bladder large and bifurcated posteriorly. I'yloric
appendages numerous.

Geographical distribution. This beautifully tinted pelagic form is fouud in
the seas of Norway and extending- in the Atlantic certainly so far as Madeira :
occasional examples are also captured in the Mediterranean.

1. Lampris luna, Plate XLII.

Sibbald, Scotia Illus. pl.-vi, f. 3 ; Wallace, Orkneys, p. 37; Mortimer, Phil.
Trans, xlvi, p. 518, t. iv. Zeus cauda bifnrca, Stroem, Scendmer, i, p. 323, t 1,
f. 20; Mull. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 44, No. 370. Opah, Penn. Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii,
p. 223, pi. xlii (Ed. 2), iii, p. 299, pi. xlvi. Zeus Stroemii, Walb. Artedi, iii,
p. 398. Boisson lune, Duhamel, Peches, iii, p. 74, t. xvii. Zeus regius, Bon.
Ency. Method, p. 72, f. civ. The Opah, Low, Fauna Oread, p. 2U8.

Scomber pelagicus t Gunner, in Dronth. Selsk. Skr. iv, p. 80, t. xii, f. 1.

Zeus luna, Gmel. Linn. p. 1225 ; Bl. Schn. p. 96 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, v,
pi. 97 ; Sowerby, Brit. Misc. pi. xxii ; Turton, p. 95.

Zeus guttatus, Briinn. Nya. Saml. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skr. 1788, iii, p. 398,
t. A ; Holten, Nat. Selsk. Skr. v, p. 129 ; Faber, Fische Islands, p. 132 ; Richard-
son, Fauna Bor. Amer. Fishes, p. 83.

Zeus opah, Pennant, Arct. Zool. Suppl. p. 419; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 287,
pi. xlii.

Lampris guttatus, Retzius, Nov. Mem. Acad. sc. Suede, 1799, t. xx, pt. 3, p. 91;
Holten, Zool. Dan. iv, t. 144; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 39, pi. eclxxxii (Young) ; Cuv.
Regne Anim. 111. Poisons, pi. lxi ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 173, c. U2\
(Ed. 2) i, p. 194 (Eel. 3) ii, p. 203 ; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 63, pi. 27, and
Wern. Mem. vii. p. 223, t. xxvii ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 38 ; Swainson, ii,
p. 251 ; Gaim. Voy. Groenl. Zool. Poissons, pi. x ; Schlegel, De Dieren v. Neder.
p. 12, pi. i, f. 5 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 48 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. 1879, p. 15.

Sccmlcr gunneri, Bl. Schn. p. 38.

Chrysotosus luna, Lacep. iv, p. 586, pi. ix, f. 3.

Zeus imperialis, Shaw, Nat. Misc. -iv, pi. cxl and Zool. iv, p. 289, pi. xlii.

Lampris luna, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 341 ; Flem, Brit. An. p. 219 ;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Jenyns, Manual, p. 369;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 96 ; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 416 ; Steind. Ich.
Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 31 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 174 ; Giglioli, Catal.
Pesc. Ital. p. 27 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 484.

Lampris lauta, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183, iii, p. 6, and Proc. Zool. Soc.
1839, p. 80, and Fish. Madeira, p. 27, t. v ; Gray, Ann. and Mag. (3) 1861, p. 192 ;
Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk, p. 11.

Opah, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 133, pi. xeiii.

B. vi-vii, D. 53-55, P. 24, V. 14-16, A. 38-41, C. 22, Vert. 20-24/21-22.

Length of head 3f to 4, of caudal fin 4f to 5, height of body 2j to 2f in the
total length. Eye placed slightly above the middle of the height of the head,
diameter 4 to 5k in the length of the head, 1 diameters from the end of the
smut. Head a little higher than long, with the profile over the eye slightly
concave. Jaws nearly equal anteriorly: the posterior extremity of the maxilla
dees not extend so far as to beneath the eye. Teeth Jaws and palate toothless.
Fins (he dorsal commences over or slightly behind the base of the pectoral : in

CORYPHJENID^E. 119

the adult the anterior fourth is elevated, whereas the rays in the remainder of the
fin are short, except the last few, which are slightly longer, and when laid flat
extend to the base of the caudal fin. Pectoral falciform, inserted about the
centre of the height of the body, and reaching to beyond the middle of the
base of the dorsal fin. Ventral situated rather posterior to the base of the
pectoral but similar to it in shape and length. Anal low, commencing on a
vertical line below the middle of the dorsal fin. Caudal forked. Lateral-line
with a strong curve, becoming straight about midway between the eye and
the base of the caudal fin : it is formed of short single un branched tubes. Free
portion of the tail as high as long. Air-bladder very large, rounded in front
and ending posteriorly in two short horns. Colours this fish is an exception to
the general rule that those which inhabit the tropical seas are most resplendent
in colours, as none can surpass the Ojjah : as a French naturalist observed,
it resembles a noble of Neptune's court attired in his gala apparel. Back
bluish-green, sides violet and becoming red beneath: a number of oval silvery
spots scattered over the whole of the body and upper surface of the head : fins
and tail bright red. The general colours, however, vary from silvery-green to
bright golden with azure reflections.

In Cuv. and Val. 1. c. reference is made to a young example of this fish
captured in the Gulf of Gascogne in 1810. The forms of the body, the various
proportions, the curvature of the lateral line and the spots were the same as in
adults. But the ventral fins equalled more than half the length of the body,
their extremities reaching to the middle of the caudal : while the anterior portion
of the dorsal fin was equally long. The pectorals likewise were proportionately
larger than seen in large specimens. This fish is figured in C. V. 1. c.

Names. Ojjah, King-fish, sea-pert, carf, Jerusalem haddock, sun-fish. Bren-
hinbijog, Welsh. Koningsvisch, Dutch. Chrysotose, French.

Habits. This fish is a resident of deep waters, but rarely coming to the
shallows in the British seas : it has been recorded as captured in Februaiy, March,
the early summer, June, July, August, November, and December, while in the
majority of cases the month has not been mentioned. It may be taken, in short,
at any time throughout the year. In the stomachs of such as have been examined,
cuttle-fishes, other cephalopods, and Acalephae have been obtained.

Means of capture. how observes that it is very rare in the Orkneys, never
caught with a hook, and seldom thrown on shore. Mr. Dunn observed his
exanqfle floating on its side close in shore : it obtained an entrance into a sort of
open drain into which the tide flowed. He seized it by the tail but was unable to
lift it : another fisherman also tried to raise it at the same time, seizing it by the
gills. The fish at once broke loose, inundating them by its splashings. Finally
it was quietly dragged by its tail up the drain when it dashed against the iron
shutter which closed the drain exit, and so became stunned. It weighed
3/4 of a cwt.

As food Wallace observes that the flesh of the anterior half was like beef
and the other half like salmon. The one washed ashore in 1835, at Queensferry,
was eaten, its flesh was red and said to resemble and to be as good as salmon.
Moreau likewise remarks of an example at Boulogne, in July, 1878, that its flesh
was served at many tables and found to be excellent.

Habitat. -It seems to prefer the deeper waters of the North Sea, and merely
ranges throughout a limited space, while it has not been recorded off Greenland
or east of North Cape. The largest number taken have been in the north. It has
been captured, according to Nilsson, on the coast of Norway from immemorial ages,
and was described by Peder Claussen in 1632 as Laxetoy, or " large salmon."
His example weighed 140 lb. In Scandinavia it is known as Glaus-fish. Very
rare in the Mediterranean, it is, however, sometimes captured there. Professor
Giglioli mentions two taken in Italy.

Among those captured in British waters, we find many recorded. Sibbald
obtained one from the Firth of Forth in 16(54: Wallace from Sunda in the
Orkneys in 1682, when he observes upon several which had been previously got
there. Upwards of a dozen specimens, observes Baikie (Zool. 1853), have been

120

ACANTHOPTERYGII.

procured at different times in the Orkneys and Zetland, and one nearly 6 feet in
length "was captured in Sanday. Mortimer, in 1750, exhibited at the Royal Society
one taken at Leith. It is scarcely necessary to enumerate all the various captures,
a long list of which may he seen in the Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society for 1809, p. 76. Pennant records two from
Scotland, and in 1760, one 3 feet 6 inches long, and weighing 70 or 80 lb., was
taken in Northumberland, and described by Harrison in the British Zoology.
One in Filey Bay, Yorkshire, 3 feet 5 inches long, and in 1772 one, 4 feet 5 inches
long and weighing 140 lb., at Brixham. Paget recorded one in December, 1823,
and another in November, 1828, captured at Yarmouth : and Scouler one from
the Clyde in 1833. In 1835, during the early part of the summer, one was taken
in the west of Cornwall, and in August the same year another near Conway
(Couch) : and in July, 1839, one at Hunstanton, on the east coast of Norfolk,
which was placed in the Wisbeach Museum. March 3rd, 1839, one was taken at
Port Gordon, near Elgin, 3 feet 10 inches long, weighing 112 lb. (Gordon, Zool.
1852, p. 3459), and several years subsequently another from near Nairn. In
1844, on July 4th, Mr. Gurney (Zool. p. 679) recorded one at Norwich which had
been left by the tide on the beach at Eccles, it was a male weighing 4 or 5 stone.
Norman mentions one taken in February, 1849, at Flamborough Head : and in
1850, another weighing 72 lb. at Redcar (Rudd, Zool. ix, ls51, p. 3010). Several
others have been recorded from Scotland and the Avest of England, and Edward
states it to have been taken in Banffshire on several occasions. A local example
is in the St. Andrew's Museum (Mcintosh). In June, 1865, a large specimen
was taken in St. Austell's Bay, Cornwall.

In Ireland we find one recorded in Sampson's Derry (p. 337), which was sent
to the Dublin Society: in 1835 one was taken in June in the Foyle (Ordnance
Survey). In October, 1842, one was sent from Train ore to the Dublin University
Museum : and in June, 1849, one weighing 55 lb. was taken in Derry (Derry
Standard) : in August the same year, another at Wexford, weighing 59 lb. In
July, 1850, one from Belfast Bay, and in 1851, one from Skerries, now in the
University Museum.

The figure is taken from the stuffed example in the British Museum.

The size to which it attains is questionable, but it has been recorded up to
6 feet in length.

JLuvarcs iMPEHi.vLis (young).

CORYPHtENIL^E. 121

Genus 3. Luvarus, Bafinesque.

Ausonia, Risso. Froctostegus, Nardo. Diana, Risso {young). Astrodermus,
Cuv. and Val. (young).

Bra nchiostegals five : pseudob ranch ice present. Body oblong, anteriorly enlarged,
but compressed and much decreased in size in its posterior two-thirds. Mouth small
and terminal. Teeth in a fi,ne row in the jaws : also on palatines and tongue in the
young. A single rayed dorsal fin situated in the last half of the length of the back in
adults, bid about one-third longer in the young. Ventrals thoracic, which in the
young may possess an entire or serrated spine. Anal fin nearly similar to dorsal.
Caudal forked. A longitudinal keel along either side of the root of the tail in adults.
Opening of vent below origin of pectoral fin. Scales rudimentary. Air-bladder large.
C cecal appendages few.

The dorsal fin is very curious, as the remains of a part of the anterior
portion which exists in the young is sometimes perceptible in the adult. The
bones of this fish are of a very soft consistence.

Professor Giglioli has shown most conclusively that Diana semilmiata, Risso,
is the immature of this fish. Such a modification is exceedingly remarkable
(see figure, p. 120).

Geographical distribution. Pelagic fishes found in the Mediterranean, and
occasional wanderers extend their range to the southern shores of the British
Isles, and even to Madeira.

1. Luvarus imperialis, Plate XLIIL

Luvarus imperialis, Rafin. Carat. Gen. 22, Spe. 53, Ind. Itt. Sicil. p. 39,
No. 290, pi. i, f. 1 ; C. Bonap. Catal. No. 700 ; Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 412 ; Giglioli,
Catal. Faun. Ital. p. 26 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 511.

Ausonia Guvieri, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 342, f . xxviii ; Lowe, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1843, p. 84 ; C. Boiiap. Catal. No. 699 ; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 414, and Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 336, c, bad fig. of skeleton ; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 108 ;
Couch, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 332, c. fig. ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868,
p. 31.

Froctostegus prototypus, Nardo, Mem. " De Proctostego " Patavii, 1827, c. fig.

Ausonia Cocksii, Couch, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii, p. 424, and
Cornish Zool. 1866, p. 500 ; W. Bullmore, Journ. Royal Inst. Cornwall, 1866,
No. vi, p. 61, c. fig.

(Young.)

Coryphcena elegans, Risso, Mem. pres. l'lnst. 1814.

Diana semilmiata, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 267, t. vii, f. 14 ; Gunther, Catal.
ii, p. 413 ; Steind. 1. c. p. 30.

Astrodermus coryphcenoides, Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 353, pi. eclxx ; Swainson, ii,
p. 255; Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 37, and Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 7.

Astrodermus Vcdenciennessi, Cocco, Giorn. Sc. Lett. Art. Sic. f. 153, c. fig.

Astroderma plumbeum, Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 83.

Astrodermus elegans, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesci. No. 701, c. fig. ; Canest. Faun.
Ital. p. 108 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 514.

B. v, D. 1/11-13 (22-23 in the young), P. 14-18, V. 1/4, A. 1/14 (18 in young),
C 16, Ccec. pyl. 5, Vert. 20 (Nardo), 11/11 (Gunther).

Length of head 4 to 5, of caudal fin h\ , height of body 4 to 4| in the total
length. Dye small, situated nearly in the middle of the height of the head,
6 to 7 diameters in the length of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the
snout. Mouth not protractile, terminal, with the lower jaw prominent, the
extent of the gape scarcely exceeding that of the diameter of the eye, while the

122 ACANTH0PTERYG1I.

cleft hardly extends one-third of the distance to beneath the orbit. A high
interparietal crest ; also a hard ridge, giving the appearance as if a furrow
extended from the forehead to the base of the pectoral tin. Teeth a fine row in
the jaws in adults : also in the young some deciduous ones on the palatines and
on the tongue. Fins in the adult the dorsal fin is low and situated in the last
half of the back not extending to the caudal fin, the rays are mostly simple and
low, sometimes a short spine has been observed before this fin (in the young the
dorsal fin commences much further forwards, and the rays, 22 to 23, are higher).
Pectoral falciform. Ventral in adults may be absent, according to Nardo, or
consist of from one spine and four branched rays to simply two rays : it is situated
nnder the base of the pectoral fin : in the young the spine may be serrated on
both edges or entire, while one of the rays is very elongated (see figure, page 120).
Anal reaching to as tar as the dorsal, and shorter, but otherwise similar to it in
both adults and young. Caudal forked. A well-marked longitudinal keel along
either side of the root of the tail, and two transverse crests as in tunnies. /Scales -
Lowe, 1. c. observes that in his adult example, 35 inches long, the whole body was
smooth and scaleless : with the exception of irregular patches here and there, most
plentiful on the head and back, of a skinny, crape-like coat or covering
of minute, rough, branny scales, like a crust of half-congealed snow, and easily
rubbed off. Where this was absent he considered such to'have been the result of
natural wear or injury. A valve exists at the vent. Colours those of Mr. Cornish's
adult example were as follows. Back, steel-gi'ay, having a broad scarlet band along
the side, and below this a silvery abdomen. The sides appeared as if sprinkled
with gold dust. Fins bright crimson. In Mediterranean examples the back has been
observed to be golden, the sides white tinged with blue, and the under surface
white. Fins mostly red : caudal golden at its base, becoming silvery at its
extremity. Ventrals brownish. The young are silvery, with blackish spots:
the dorsal and anal fins dark, whereas the others are yellow stained with red.

The male fish is said to have the anterior dorsal rays prolonged.

Habits. These are scarcely known : the young have been captured near
the surface at sea. Its intestines would seem to point to its being a
vegetable feeder, which probably does not live at any great depths in the ocean.

Breeding. Risso observes on having found a female Diana semilunata, full
of eggs in the summer.

As food. Kardo observed that it resembled beef, and its flavour was
excellent.

Habitat. This fish is found, though rarely, in the Mediterranean, and has
been occasionally obtained on the Italian and Sicilian coasts, a large female
example having been captured at Venice in 1839 : it has been also mentioned
from other localities, as from Malta, Nice, and Cetti, in which last place one
was taken August 3rd, 1875.

The first recorded British example was thrown on shore at Deadman, on
the south coast of Cornwall, on April 30th, 1866, and was secured by Mr.
Dunn, who dispatched it to Couch. At the time of its capture a strong breeze
was blowing, and the waves were rough. This specimen is now in the British
Museum, and is the one from which I figured plate xliii. It measured 3 feet
9 inches from the snout to the fork of the tail. The second example was taken
at Falmouth, September 30th, 1866, while floundering in a pool left by a
receding tide. A fisherman seized it by the tail, and was towed about by the fish
until it was tired. It measured 4 feet in length and weighed 120 lb.

Rafinesque's example captured June, 1808, in Sicily, was 5 feet long.

CAllANGID^E. 123

Family, XII CARANGID^E, Gunther.

Scomberoidei pt. et Squamipinnes, pt. Cuvier : Scomlrioidce, pt. Richardson.

Branchiostegals seven, occasionally less: pseudobranchise present (absent
in Lichia and Trachynotus). Body oblong, elevated, or sub-cylindrical and
compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. No bony articulation between
preopercle and infraorbitals. Dentition varied: teeth, when present, conical.
Base of spinous dorsal of less extent than the rayed portion, and occasionally
formed of isolated spines : sometimes detached finlets at the end of dorsal and
anal fins. Anal spines, when present, may or may not be continuous with
the fin. Ventrals, when present, thoracic, sometimes rudimentary. Scales
usually small or absent. Lateral-line may be partially or entirely armed
with shield-like plates. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages usually
numerous. Vertebrae 10/14 (Naucrates 10/16).

The young of many genera of fishes of this family have the head variously
armed, but such armature is absorbed before they reach the adult age.

Geographical distribution. From as far north as Denmark and Sweden,
through most of the temperate and tropical seas of both hemispheres.

Genus I. Caranx, Lacepede.

Trachurus, Olistus, Bleplwris, Gallichthys, Scyris, and PLynnis, Cuv. and Val. ;
Trachinus, S wain son ; Megalaspis, Decapterus, iSelar, Garangichthys, Garangoides,
Leioglossus, Uraspis, Selaroides, Gnathanodon, and Eemicaranx, Bieeker ; Garangus,
Girard ; Trachurops, Carangops, and Paratractus, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oblong, sub-cylindrical,
and more or less compressed. Cleft of mouth of moderate depth. Eyes lateral,
with, or without adipose lids. Teeth generally tueaJc. Tivo dorsal fins : the first
continuous, having about eight weak spines, which are sometimes rudimentary, at
its base anteriorly is a recumbent, forwardly-directed spine: the second dorsal of
greater extent than the first and similar to the anal : sometimes the last rays of
both these fins are semi or wholly detached: two pre-anal spines which occasionally
are rudimentary, they are separated by an interspace from the anal fin. Scales
minute. Lateral-line with an anterior curved portion, while the posterior is straight
and covered with large plate-like scales which are usually heeled and sometimes spinate,
these may be continued on to the anterior curved portion of the lateral-line
(Trachurus). Air-bladder bifurcated posteriorly. Pyloric appendages in large
numbers.

Considering the numerous species and varieties of form which are found in
the genus it is not surprising that many sub-divisions of it have been
proposed. The characters employed for this purpose have been the dentition,
the form of the fins, the serrations or the reverse of the preopercle, and the
armature of the scales on the lateral-line, the scales on the body, and the
adipose eyelids. But the single British species is well characterized by its
entire lateral-line being armed with large keeled plates.

Geographical distribution. The fishes composing the genus Caranx, or "Horse-
mackerels," are spread from Norway and Sweden throughout most of the
temperate and tropical seas, more especially abounding in the latter, where they
attain to a large size, and are not considered unsuitable for the table : though
some have been reported as poisonous at certain times in particular localities
in the tropics, probably due to the food on which they have been living.

121 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Caranx trachurus, Plate XLIV.

Tpayovpos. Athen. vii, p. 326 ; Oppian, Halieut. i, p. 5.

Saurus, Salv. fol. 79, pi. xv. Lacertus seu Trachurus, Belon. p. 133. Lacertus
Helonii, Gesner, pp. 467, 552. Trachurus, Rondel, viii, c. 6, p. 233, c. fig.
Museken, Sclion. p. 75; Aldrov. ii, c. 52, p. 268; Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, tit. iii,
c. 3, Art. 1. p. 94, tab. xxi, f. 8 ; Ray, p. 92. Scad, Willughby, p. 290, t. S. 22 ;
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 269, pi. Ii (Ed. 1812), iii, p. 363, pi. lxii.
Scomber, No. 3, Artedi, Gen. p. 31. Scomber, Sp. Gronov. Zooph. p. 94, No. 308,
and Mus. Ich. i, p. 34, No. 80 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii, Sect. 7, p. 188, pi. i, f. 2.

Scomber trachurus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 494 ; Bloch, t lvi ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1335 ;
Bonnat. p. 140, pi. lviii, f. 230 : Bl. Schn. p. 27 ; Pallas, Zoogr. Ross, iii, p. 208 ;
Donovan, Brit. Pishes, i, pi. iii ; Turton, p. 101.

Caranx trachurus, Lacep. iii, p. 60; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 173, and Eur. Merid.
iii, p. 421 ; Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 11, pi. 246; Jenyns' Manual, p. 366 ; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 154, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 175 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 236 ; Bonap. Pesc. Eur.
p. 75 ; Gay, Hist. Chile, Zool. ii, p. 233 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. lvii,
f. 1 ; Richards. Ich. China, p. 273, and Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1843, xi. p. 25 ;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2), i, p. 409; Parnell, Pish. Firth of Forth,
p. 57, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 217 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 171
Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 393 ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss.
p. 61 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 37 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 95 ;
Schlegel, De Dieren Nederland, p. 8, pi. i, f. 2 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 50 ;
Winther, Ich. Dan. 1879, p. 15.

Caranx omorus, Lacep. iii, pi. xi, f. 1.

Caranx amia, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 174.

Trachinus spinulosis, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 249.

Seriola picturata, Bowd. Exc. p. 123, f. xxvii.

Trachurus vulgaris, Flem. Brit. An. p. 218; Johnston, Fish. Berwick. Mag.
Nat. Hist, vi, 1833, p. 15.

Trachurus Europeus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 125.

Caranx trachurus, var. Japonicus, Temm. and Schleg. Fauna Japon. Poiss.
p. 109, pi. lix, f. 1.

Selar Japonicus, Bleeker, Japan, pi. viii, f. 1.

Caranx symmetricus, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sc. i, 1855, p. 62.

Trachurus symmetricus, Girard, U. St. Pacif. R. R. Exped. Fish. p. 107.

Caranx Cuvieri, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183.

Caranx declivis, Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, Fishes, p. 68, pi. xiv.

Trachurus trachurus, Casteln. Anim. Nouv. on rares Poiss. p. 23 ; Gunther,
Catal. ii, p. 419 ; Kner and Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, liv, p. 364 ; Kner,
Novara Fische, p. 150; Mcintosh, Fish. St; Andrew's, p. 174; Giglioli, Pesci
Ital. p. 27; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 437.

Scad, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 136, pi. xciv.

B. vii, D. 8/3^33, P. 19-21, V. 1/5, A. 2/^1^, C. 17, L. 1. 73, Ccec. pyl. 12.
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4 to 4|, of caudal fin 5 to 5f, height of body 5 to h\ in the
total length. Eye situated above the middle of the height of the head, it has
a wide posterior adipose lid extending nearly or quite to the edge of the pupil,
and also a much narrower anterior adipose lid. Diameter of eye from 3~ to
3f in the length of the head, from 1 in the young to 1^ diameters in the
adult from the end of the snout, and nearly 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space
flattened, with a rather sharp ridge running down its centre. The lower jaw
the longer : the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third of the eye. Preorbital
much narrower posteriorly than it is anteriorly. Free portion of tail wider than
deep. Teeth minute in the jaws, also on the vomer, palatines, and in a band
along the middle of the tongue. Fins dorsal spines weak, increasing in length
to the 4th and 5th, subsequent to which they decrease, a short interspace between
the two fins, the second being much lower than the first and similar to the

CARANGIDiE. 125

anal. Pectoral sickle-shap xl, nearly or quite as long as the head. Ventral not
extending to the vent. Second pre-anal spine the strongest. Caudal rather
deeply forked. Scales very small, present on cheeks, opercls, summit of the
head, and over the body. Lateral-line makes a curve to beneath the first third
of the second dorsal fin, in the curved portion of its course it is crossed by
large scale-like plates, deeper than wide, which become more indistinct in the
a lult : in its straight portion these plates, 34 to 40, are keeled, becoming most
strongly so posteriorly. The number of these plates is subject to great variation,
thus in Cuv. and Val. it is observed that such varied from 70 to 99, in examples
examined in Paris. Air-bladder M. Moreau (Compt. Rend, lxxx) observes that an
opening exists permitting the escape of gas from this organ into the bronchial
cavity, but does not admit atmospheric air. Coecal appendages elongated, and
about twelve in number. Colours of a dark bluish along the back and so low as
the lateral-line, beneath which it becomes silvery, glossed with purple and gold.
A diffused black spot on the opercle.

Varieties. Edward remarks that he once found a rather strange variety of
this species in Banffshire. It was about the usual size, but of a most beautiful
golden colour, finely striped and variegated with numerous lines of the brightest
blue, except the fins, which were of the finest carmine.

Names. Scad, horse-mackerel, which term is said to denote the inferior
quality of its flesh: buck-mackerel -(Banff). Macrell y Meirch, Welsh. Le saurel,
French. Hors, Dutch.

Habits. Adults are more solitary in their habits than are the young,
and they swim low in the water : in the colder months they retire to the
deeper water, re-appearing on our coasts about April, when they become one of
our commonest fish. They are, however, very uncertain in their migrations,
perhaps from a great sensibility to cold and vicissitudes of temperature. Thus
Parnell observes that in 1833 and 1834 scarcely an example was observed in the
Firth of Forth, while they were in prodigious numbers on the English and Welsh
coasts. Off Glamorganshire on the evening of July 24th, 1834, the whole sea
as far as could be seen, appeared to be in a fermentation from their numbers.
These immense shoals continued passing up channel for a week. Devoured
themselves in large numbers by sea birds, they are great enemies to pilchards, the
herring-fry, and the sand-launce, &c. Thompson found young Clupeidce in one
he opened in August. Ball states that he has seen the " scad " run up on shore
in considerable numbers, but whether in pursuit of young sprats termed
scad-bait or to avoid porpoises, Deiphimis phocama, which were conspicuous in
their rear, he was unable to say. In Norfolk, Mr. Upcher observed that he had
frequently seen large numbers of the scad in chase of small fry along the coast
at Sherringham, and so intent in the pursuit as to be easily taken with a landing
net. The beach was quite covered with small fish which were stranded on the
shingle after leaping from the wat?r to escape their pursuers. R. Couch has
observed that the " mackerel " and " scad " do not intermingle much except near
the Scilly Isles, where they are frequently caught together in large quantities.
North of this the mackerel predominate, to the south the scad, and it is surmised
that in the winter months the shoals of scad are to the south of those of the
mackerel, the borders of the two intermingling. They pass up the channel
during the spring in the deep water, feediug at the bottom, but as summer advances
they approach the shore, swimming high, and these are frequently taken by
mackerel-nets as well as by hooks and lines. Sir T. Browne remarks that in
Norfolk " before the herrings there commonly cometh a fish about a foot long, by
fishermen called a horse, resembling in all points the Trachurus of Rondeletius."

Means of capture. As many "as 20,000 have been taken off Cornwall in a
net at one time. In September and October they are captured in numbers in
tl e Cornish pilchard nets : some are taken in the salmon nets in the Firth of Forth.

Baits. Large ones readily take a bait.

Breed-in g. June, July, and August (but in the Mediterranean during the
spring, according to Risso). In September the bays in Cornwall swarm with the
young of about 1 inch in length, by October numbers scarcely exceeding 2 inches

120 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

in length are captured, while others are 7 or 8 inches. Scad about 1 inch
long are commonly taken from the stomachs of large fish from the end of
December to the middle of February. Couch, from these facts, suggested
Avhether they do not breed twice a year ; or perhaps all do not breed at the same
time. He also observed that the young have sometimes an unfortunate fate :
coming to the surface to obtain heat, they are huddled together, when guillemots
dive down to beneath them and gulls dart down from above.

Uses. In West Cornwall and the Scilly Isles they are split and dry salted:
also in the north of Ireland, where they are known as crake-herrings.

As food. Pennant says the one 16 inches long which he had, taken in October,
was firm and well-tasted, having the flavour of mackerel. It is in best season
when it first comes off the coast in April. Generally it is but little esteemed,
and is held in no higher estimation in Ireland, according to Thompson, but Ball
states that on the south coast it is much valued by the poor.

Habitat. This fish has been taken off Denmark and the west coast of
Norway, but is not common in the Baltic : as we pass further south their
numbers increase, while they are very common in the Mediterranean. Found at
Madeira, they range to the Cape of Good Hope, and have been brought from the
Chinese and Australian seas : also from Western America, Steindaohner having
received them from Valparaiso, while others have been obtained on the same coast.

Very common on all parts of the Cornish seas, disappearing in October, but
numbers of the young are taken until spring*. It is found all round the coasts
of Great Britain: frequent off Lowestoft, rare off Yarmouth, while it has been
recorded from Berwickshire. In Scotland, Gordon (Zool. 1852, p. 3459) remarks
on it having been taken in the Moray Firth ; a few every year at Lossiemouth,
while it has been met with at Nairn. Parnell observes that in the Firth of
Forth seldom more than 1 or 1| dozens are taken during the year. Edward says
that in Banffshire it is not very numerous, and is seldom eaten : Mcintosh, that
it is not uncommon at St. Andrew's ; and Baikie that it is tolerably common
in the Orkneys and Zetland.

In Ireland it is taken around the coast, but in larger numbers on the southern
and western shores than on the northern or north-eastern. Moore records it from
Kerry.

The example figured, life size, was from the south coast : it attains to about
20 inches in iength. Dr. Lowe mentions one he saw taken in the Norfolk estuary,
which weighed 2 lb.

CARANGIDyE. 127

Genus 2. Naucrates, Cuvier.

Nauclerus, Cuvier (young). Xystophorus, Richardson (young).

BrancMostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body oblong, sub-cylindrical.
Cleft of month of moderate extent. A spine at the angle of the preopercle in lite,
young, which becomes absorbed as age increases. Villiform teeth in the jaws, vomer,
a >i</ palatine bones. The first dorsal fin, which is continuous in the young, becomes
reduced to a few free spines in the adult : the second dorsal and anal many rayed:
no spurious fins or finlets : in the young two pre-anal spines remote from the anal
fin but winch becomes absorbed, with age. Scales small : lateral line unarmed. A
heel on either side of the free portion of the tail. Air-bladder present. Pyloric
appendages in moderate numbers.

-^lian tells us that these fishes were supposed to be kindly disposed towards
sailors, and therefore liked to approach ships, which they continued with until
they approached the land. They were deemed sacred to Neptune, the god of the
ocean, who protected them from designed injury, consequently a man who had
ventured to eat one soon afterwards lost his son by drowning. That these fishes
will accompany vessels long voyages has been frequently observed, thus two came
from the Mediterranean to Falmouth (see Linn. Trans. Vol. XIV). They do not
appear to like the cold water of the English Channel. Edward has recorded the
capture of one as far north as Banffshire, and Dr Harvey its occurrence off
the county of Cork.

Geographical distribution. This pelagic fish is extensively spread through
most temperate and tropical seas.

1. Naucrates ductor, Plate XLV.

[Jd/z7ri\oe, ^Elian, ii, c. ] 5, xv, c. 23 ; Athen. vii, p. 282 ; Oppian, i, p. 188.
Pompilus, Ovid, Hal. v, 101; Pliny, ix, c. 15, xxxii, c. 11; Gesner, p. 881;
Aldrov. iii, c. 19, p. 325; Willugh. p. 215, Append, pi. viii, f. 2. Pilote, Dutertre,
Hist. Antilles, ii, p. 223; Ray, p. 156. Scomber, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 3l)9 ;
Koelreuter, Nov. Com. Pentrop. ix, p. 464, t. x, f. 4, 5 ; Duhamel, Peches, ii,
Sect. 4, pi. iv, f. 4, pl.ix, f. 3. Coryphazna, No. 3, Artedi, Genera, p. 16.

Gasterosteus ductor, Linn. Syst. i, p. 489 ; Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 67, Bennett,
Whaling Voyage, ii, p. 274.

Gasterosteus antecessor, Dald. Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kjob. ii, p. 166.

Scomber ductor, Bloch, t, 338 ; Hasselq. Iter, p. 336 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1324;
Bl. Schn. p. 32 ; Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 424.

Scomber koelreuteri, Bl. Schn. p. 570.

Cenfronotus conductor, Lacep. iii, p. 311 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 193, and Europ.
Merid. iii, p. 428.

Naucrates fanfarus, Rafin. Car. p. 44.

Naucrates ductor, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 312, pi. ccxxxii ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish.
(Ed. 1) i, p. 149, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 170 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 227 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii,
p. 245 ; Guichen. Exp. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 60; Cocks, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1856, xviii, p. 496 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 95 ; Giinther, Catal.
ii, p. 374, and Fische Sudsee, Heft, v, Dec. 1876, p. 137 ; Klunz. Verh. z. b. Ges.
Wien, 1871, p. 445 ; Day, Fishes of India, p. 229, pi. Ha, fig. 2 ; Giglioli, Catal.
Pesc. Ital. p. 25 ; Lutken, Spolia Atlantica, p. 600, pi. iii, f. 14, 15 ; Moreau,
Poiss. France, ii, p. 449.

Naucrates novemboracensis, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 325.

Naucrates indicus, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 326 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poiss.
pi. liv. f. 1 ; Less. Voy. Coq. Zool. Poiss. p. 157, pi. xiv ; Richardson, Ich. China,
p. 269 ; Kner, Novara Fische, p. 145.

Naucrates Icoelreuteri, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 327.

Nauclerus compressus, Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 249, pi. eclxiii ; Giinther, Catal. ii,
p. 469 (? young).

Centronotus ductor, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 82 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 365 ;
White, Catal. Brit, Fish. p. 34.

Thynnus pompilus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 123.

Pilot-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit, Isles, ii, p. 107, pi. Ixxxvii.

128 ACANTH0PTERYGI1

B. vii, D. 3-6 | *, p - 19- 21 > v - 1 I^ A - - 2 I i 6 " 1 ?, c - l^i Coec. pyl. 12-16,
Vert. 10/16.

Length of head 4*- to 4J, of pectoril fin 8, of caudal fin 5f, height of body
4 to 4^ in the total length. Eye diameter 5 in the length of the head,
Is diameters from the end of the snout, and 2 apart. The gi'eatest width of
the head equals 3/5 of its length, its height equals its length behind its
posterior nostril. Jaws nearly equal in front or the lower slightly projecting, the
maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth villiform in the
jaws, in a pyriform band on the vomer, and in a long patch upon the palatines :
tongue rough. Fins free spines, composing first dorsal fin, all short: second
dorsal fin highest anteriorly : anal commences below the 10th or 12th dorsal ray,
it has generally two free spines anterior to it. Caudal forked. Pectoral as long
as the ventral, which reaches two-fifths of the distance to the base of the anal.
Scales small and cycloid. Lateral-line makes a gradual curve to above the
first third of the anal when it is continued direct to the middle of the base of the
caudal fin, forming a raised keel in the last portion. Colours bluish, with five
or six dark (in the live fish purplish-green) vertical bands, narrower than the
ground colour. Fins gray, with three of the body bands continued on to the
dorsal, which has also a white upper tip : and two bands on to the anal, which
is similarly white tipped. The ends of each caudal lobe white with a dark base.
Pectoral with a light outer edge.

Young, Plate XLV, fig. 2 (3/1), after Liitken.

These differ considerably from the adult, and have been placed in distinct
genera. In Cuv. and Val. they form the genus Nauclerus, represented as having
a continuous first dorsal fin and a spine at the angle of the preopercle. Sir
J. Richardson in the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror, plate xxx, fig. 22,
represents the very young under the name of Xystophorus (as pointed out by
Liitken). It has spines on the supraorbital edge, at the angle and lower margin
of the preopercle, and likewise along the lower edge of the interopercle. In an
example I have from the Andamans, 9/10 of an inch in length, there is a strong
spine at the angle of tho preopercle and two along its lower edge : the others
are almost lost.

Varieties. A black form, Scomber niger, Bloch, t. cccxxxvii, has been observed.

Names. Pilot-fish, a name which it has received from the propensities
attributed to it by some authors, denied by others. Le Pilote, French.

Habits. This fish has long been celebrated as the companion and the guide of
sharks, as it was formerly said to be of whales, and also the friend, or at least
close attendant, on ships while sailing over the ocean. Although some consider
the pilot-fish to be the friend of the shark, others have thought such open to
suspicion, while Cuvier has even suggested downright enmity or rather treachery
in its actions. M. Geoffrey tells how two of these fishes were observed to lead
a shark up to a baited hook which by their importunities they induced him to
gorge. Or as Cuvier pithily puts it, that this tale if true should occasion them to be
termed " deceivers " rather than " pilots." Captain Richards once observed upon a
blue shark attended by four pilot -fishes following his vessel in the Mediterranean;
a bait was displayed, but the little pilot-fishes pertinaciously came to the front and
with their snouts thrust the baited hook away. All at last swam away together,
but suddenly the shark changed its mind, turned and rushed forwards with all
speed at the bait, leaving his faithful attendants far behind, and which only
arrived as the body of their companion was being hauled up on board, to which
one is said to have clung until it was half above water, when it fell off leaving it
doubtful if it was not a sucking-fish (see p. 1(>8 ante). Why the shark does not
prey on its companions is a mystery. Lacepede thought their agility saved them,
and that their flesh is not worth the eating.

In the Naturalists' Note-book (1869, p. 255), a writer (J. D. S. W.) mentions
" we frequently threw pieces of flesh into the water to them. The pilot-fish first
came up and smelt the meat, and then went away and led the shark to it, who
always swallowed the whole and left none for his little companions. On a dark
night yon can see the entire shape of the shark in the water below, shining all

CARANGID^E. 129

over with phosphorus. Now this phosphorus is considered by most naturalists
to be animalcules, and if so, it may reasonably be presumed that the pilot-fishes
live on them, for they are frequently seen clinging to the sides of the shark."
Dr. Meyer considers it probable that the pilot-fish feeds on the shark's excrements,
for which purpose it keeps it company, and is solely acted upon by selfish views.
Couch tells us that in the solitary instance in which he had learnt that the
pilot-fish had been found when alone at a considerable distance from any floating
substance or harbour it seemed to be bewitched, dashed about close to the shore,
and allowed itself to be captured by the hand. The probabilities are that the
example was ill. They have not been observed accompanying sharks off the
British coast.

Means of capture. One has been taken with a hook and line. On vessels
arriving at their port these fish have been secured with but little difficulty.
Some of those obtained off the British coasts have been captured in mackerel nets.

Baits. The stomach has been found fall of small fish, and one example has
been recorded which was taken on a baited hook.

Breeding. As numerous fry are captured in the open sea it does not seem
improbable that the spawn floats and is hatched there. I have an example of the
young from the Andaman Islands taken close in shore.

As food. Mr. Cornish states that he foand one he ate to resemble a dry
mackerel, a comparison which accords with my experience in the East.

Habitat. Extending from the British Isles through the Atlantic to temperate
and tropical seas. Rare in the British Channel, it is found throughout the
Mediterranean : at Messina many are captured during the autumn, and although
said to be rare at Marseilles, it is plentiful at Nice, especially about September.
It is occasionally taken off the coast of America.

In 1818, one was taken in Dartmouth Harbour: in 1831, the " Peru " put into
Plymouth from Alexandria, having been out eighty-two days, during the last
eighty of which she had been accompanied by two of these fishes, which in
Catwater, where the vessel anchored, became so tame as to be easily
captured, when they were eaten and declared to be excellent. In October,
1833, nearly one hundred came with a vessel from Sicily into Catwater, but
all escaped capture. In 1841, Dr. Shorter recorded one from Hastings, and
Yarrell obtained another, but where it was taken is not mentioned. One was
captured off the Isle of Wight in 1853, and on January 13th, 1855, a boy
took three at Falmouth. A shoal made its appearance, observes Mr. Cocks, at
the Customs' House Pier at Falmouth, October 31st, 1856, and more than three
dozens were caught in nets, baskets, &c, by people on the beach. He observed
that he had preserved specimens of this fish every year of his residence in the
neighbourhood. Mr. Cornish (Zool. p. 9115) recorded an example taken at
Penzance in June 8th, and another on the 11th October, 1868 : Buckland
received one taken off Folkestone in a mackerel net. June 27tk, 1873, two were
taken in mackerel nets about fifteen miles south-west of Penzance, consequently
in the deep sea, and were supposed to have followed some vessel (Cornish, Zooi.
p. 3653). June, 1874, Mr. Cornish (Zool. p. 4080) recorded one from Penzance,
and on November 9th, two were taken at Plymouth by a sailor in the Great
Western Docks (Gatcombe, Zool. p. 4266) : and one (Zool. p. 184),
February 14th, 1877, in a herring net off Plymouth. Mr. Lee obtained one in
December at Margate, a sailor seeing it basking hit it with a boat's stretcher, and
brought it ashore. R. Couch says they are occasionally taken in Mount's Bay,
but their presence can always be traced to the arrival of some foreign vessel.
" Many years since I saw a specimen freshly caught on the Suffolk coast,
and sent for preservation to the late Mr. J. Tims, of Norwich, in whose house
it was unfortunately destroyed by a fire on the premises." (Gurney, in Lowe's
Catal. of the Fishes of Norfolk.) Edward records a fine example in Banff shiie,
taken in the bay. In Ireland one was obtained in 1841 from Cookhaven, in tno
County of Cork (Dr. Harvey).

9

ISO ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus III. Pammelas, Giinther.

Palinurus, De Kay : Palimirichthys, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong and rather compressed. Snout obtuse and
swollen. Gape of month of moderate width : pre- inter- and sub-opercles serrated.
Teeth in jaws in a single row: none on the palate or tongue. Two dorsal fins,
the first consisting of six or seven free spines : anal with three spines, the first
two being concealed by being nearly imbedded in the flesh. No finlets. Scales small,
ctenoid, and extended over the bases of the vertical fins. Air-bladder divided by a
constriction into two parts.

Geographical distribution. Western coast of North America. A straggler
has been taken off Cornwall, bnt in a manner which raises a question whether
it ought or ought not to be included amongst the British fishes.

1. Pammelas perciformis, Plate XL VI.

Rudder-fish or Perch coryphene, Mitchill, Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i,
pi. xvi, f. 7 (no description).

Coryphaina perciformis, Mitchill, Amer. Monthly Mag. ii, p. 244.

Trachinotus argenteus, Storer, Mass. Report, p. 55 (not Cuv.)

Palinurus perciformis, De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, p. 118, pi. xxiv, . 25.

Pammelas perciformis, Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 485.

Pal inurichthus perciformis, Gill, Report Amer. Fisheries, 1873, p. 804.

Pimelepterus Comubiensis, T. Cornish, Zoologist (2), ix, 1874, p. 4255.

B. vii, D. 6-7/^, P. 23, V. 1/5, A. 2/^^, C. 21, L. 1. 78, L. tr. 12/30.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 6, height of body 3 to 3j in the total length.
Eye diameter 4j- in the length of the head, 1| from the end of the snout, and
1^ apart. Body elliptical and compressed. Preopercle finely serrated along the
lower portion of its vertical limb, angle, and inferior limb : also on sub- and
inter-opercles. Lower jaw slightly the longer : the maxilla reaches posteriorly
to beneath the middle of the eye. The greatest depth of the body is below
the commencement of the second dorsal fin. Teeth in either jaw in a single
row of equally sized ones placed a short distance asunder : none on the vomer,
palatines, or tongue. Fins the first dorsal, consisting of free spines, commences
above the opercle : the length of the base of the second dorsal equals about one-
third of that of the total length of the fish, it is low, the height of its rays scarcely
exceeding one-fifth of the height of the body, and all of nearly equal length. Anal
commences under the first third of the second dorsal, and is similar to it. Pectoral
short, equalling the length of the head excluding the snout : ventral slightly
shorter : caudal emarginate, or slightly lobed. Scales small, ctenoid, covering
the bases of the vertical fins : some also present on the cheeks and opercles.
Lateral-line makes a gradual curve in its anterior two-fifths, becoming straight
from above the commencement of the anal fin. Colours leaden, shot with
purple over the back, occasionally becoming lighter on the abdomen. Head
mottled with dark bluish spots, a row of them in the Cornish example being
disposed round the upper and hinder part of the eye.

Names. De Kay observes that it was termed Trachinotus Cumberlandi by
Cozzens in a paper read before the Lyceum. De Kay calls it the black pilot,
while the fishermen's name is Snip-nosed-rnullet.

Uabits. De Kay observes that this fish is an occasional visitor to the shores
of New York, where in 1815 several dozens followed a ship into the harbour, and
one was captured by a hook at the wharves in the month of August. It is said
to be exceedingly active, while numerous shrimps were present in the stomach of
one which was opened. In the British example barnacles were found in its
stomach.

Habitat. Is found on the cast coast of America from Maine to Cape Hatteras.

CARANGID^E. 131

Off New York De Kay considered it to be common, while Storer noticed it on the
coast of Massachussets.

The single British example was captured off Penzance, about six miles from
shore, on October 9th, 1874, by the crew of a trawler. It was found alive in a
wooden case, of which the bottom and sides were perfect but one board out of the
three which had originally formed its top was absent. Although the fish was
said to have been found in a good state of health, its proportions would seem to
indicate its being- thin, and perhaps somewhat starved. The specimen fortunately
came into the possession of Mr. Cornish, of Penzance, Avho at once recognized
it as being new to the British Fauna. It has been stuffed, and is now
in the collection of Sir John St. Aubyn. When captured it was 14| inches in
length.

The example figured is in the British Museum, and came from America.

u *

132 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV. Lichia, Cuvier.

Porthmeus, Cuv. and Val. {young).

Branchiostegals eight ; pseudobranchiai absent. Body oblong and compressed.
Cleft of mouth of moderate extent. Small teeth in the jaws, on the vomer,
palatine bones, and tongue. Two dorsal fins, the first consisting of free spines,
with an anterior one directed furivards : second dorsal low, with no finlets. Anal
somewhat similar to second dorsal, and with tivo pre-anal spines. Scales small.
Pyloric appendages in moderate or large numbers. Air-bladder present, bifurcated
posteriorly .

Liitken, Spolia Atlantica, p. 600, observes that Porthmeus argenteus is the
young of Lichia amia not of a Chorinemus ; he considers L. amia as the type
of a genus distinct from Lichia, terming it Porthm,eus amia. He likewise
observes on L. calcar, JBL, being the young of a Chorinemus.

Geographical distribution. From the British Isles to Madeira and the Cape
de Verd Islands, to the South Atlantic Ocean, from the coast of Africa to
Brazil. A species has been recorded from the coast of Chili in the South
Pacific. There are two species which have been found in the Mediterranean
and Atlantic, besides L. glauca.

L. amia, D. 7/- T , A. 2/^\. The upper maxilla reaches to at least as far
as to below the hind edge of the eye : lateral-line with a semi-circular curve
above the pectoral fin. Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean in the Eastern
Hemisphere.

L. vadigo, D. ^I^.-^, A. Z/^z-*. The upper maxilla reaches to below
the hind edge of the eye : lateral-line slightly bent above the pectoral fin.
Mediterranean and also Madeira.

1. Lichia glauca, Plate XLVII, fig. 1.

Prima glauci species, Rondel, viii, c. 16, p. 252, c. fig. ; Willughby, p. 297.
Glaucvs, Gesner, 1598, f. 61, c. fig. Lampuge, Belon. p. 155. Scomber, No. 5,
Artedi, Genera, p. 52.

Scomber glaucus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 494 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1332 ; Bl. Schn.
p. 33 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 593.

Gasterosteus glaucus (Forst.), Bl. Schn. p. 539 ; Forst. Descrip. Anim. Cur.
Lichtenst. p. 5.

Caranx glaucus, Lacep. iii, pp. 58, 66.

Scomber asce?isionis, Shaw, Gen. Zool. iv, p. 593.

Centronotus ghnicos, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 194.

Centronotus biuotatus, Rafin. Caratt. p. 43, t. viii, f. 2.

Lichia glaucus (or glauca'), Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 429 ; Cuv. and Val. viii,
p. 358, pi. ccxxxiv ; Val. in Webb, and Berth. lies Canar. p. 56, pi. xiii, f. 1 ;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 36G ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 232, c. fig. ; Guichen.
Explor. Alger, p. 61; White, Catal. p. 34; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 477; Canestr.
Faun. Ital. p. 110 ; J. Couch, Zool. 1859, xvii, p. 6333 ; Stuind. Ich. Span. u.
Port. 1868, p. 41 ; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. 1880, p. 28 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
ii, p. 454, c. tig.

Albicore, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 82.

Derbio, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 139, pi. xcv.

B. viii, D. 5-6 | ^Vt, P. 17, V- 1/5, A. 2/^- 2T , C. 17, Coec. pyl. 13-16.
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4f to 5, of caudal fin 4 to 4|-, height of body 3| to 4 in the
total length. Eye diameter 3f to 4 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from
the end of the snout, and l-- apart. Lower jaw slightly the longer : the maxilla

CARANGIDJ3. 133

reaches posteriorly to beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth m the jaws,
vomer, palatine bones, and on the tongue. Fins spines of first dorsal fin of about
equal length : anterior portion of second dorsal somewhat elevated : while the
anal is slightly shorter than but otherwise similar to the second dorsal. Pectoral
as long as the head behind the middle of the orbit : ventral shorter : free anal
spines rather strong. Caudal fin deeply forked. Free portion of the tail about
as high anteriorly as it is long. Scales small : cycloid. Lateral-line makes a
very slight curve to above the commencement of the anal fin, when it proceeds
direct to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Colours very bright, superiorly
gray or greenish, becoming lighter or yellow on the sides and beneath. Three
or four gray blotches, sometimes absent, across the anterior portion of the lateral-
line. Fins yellowish, the anterior rays of the second dorsal and anal, also the
ends of the caudal lobes, stained with black.

Names. Glaucus from its light sea-green colour. This fish has also erroneously
been termed albacore by Couch, that being the designation of a tunny (see p. 98).
According to Rondeletius, Derbio is a local term employed at Montpellier.

Breeding. Risso observes that in the Mediterranean it breeds during the
summer.

As food. "Was esteemed in Greece and Rome.

Habitat. Common throughout the Mediterranean and in the Atlantic from
the southern shores of Great Britain southwards along the west coast of Africa to
the Cape of Good Hope, as well as across the South Atlantic Ocean to the coast
of Brazil.

In October, 1857, Couch obtained an example, 13J inches in length, from a
drift net, which had been employed in the autumn mackerel fishery, in deep water
off the Runnel Stone, Mount's Bay, Cornwall. On August 28th, 1878, a second
example was captured near Penzance (Cornish, Zool. 1878, p. 423).

This fish appears to attain to at least 15 inches in length.

134 ACANTH0PTERYG1I.

Genus V. Capros, Lacepede.

Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchio? tvell developed. Body elevated and
compressed. Mouth very protractile. Small teeth in the jaws and vomer, but absent
from the palatine bones and tongue. Two dorsal fins placed close together, the first,
with nine strong spines : the second many rayed (23-25): anal with three spines,
and the rays similar to those of the second dorsal. Ventral with one spi7ie and
five rays. Scales small and very rough : a scaly, but no bony, ridge along the
bases of the soft dorsal and anal fins. Air-bladder large. Pyloric appendages few.

Lowe instituted in 1843 Family Caproid^; for the reception of this genus, and
the allied oue of Antigonia, Lowe, which latter is identical with Caprop>honus,
Miiller and Troschel, and has been obtained from Madeira as well as Barbadoes.
Hypsinotus rubescens, Tern, and Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, plate xlii, f. 2,
appears very similar to, if not identical with, Capros, but having a smaller eye
than the European species ; should this be the case, it is another instance of fishes
extending from European into Japanese waters. The Capros is not very distantly
allied to the Dorees, Zeus.

Geographical distribution. From the shores of the British Isles to Madeira,
also through the Mediterranean.

a

1. Capros aper, Plate XL VII, fig. 2.

Aper, Rondel, v, c. 27, p. 161, c. fig. ; Aldrov. iii, c. 12, p. 297 ; Jonston, i,
tit. i, c. 1, Art. 4, t. i, f. 8 ; Willughby, p. 296, t. 1 4, fig. 4; Ray, p. 99 ; Artedi,
Genera, p. 50 ; Gesner, 1598, f. 30, c. fig.

Zeus aper, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 455 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1225 ; Bl. Schn. p. 96 ;
Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 73 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 368.

Perca pusilla, Briinn. Ich. Mass. p 62 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1311 ; Bl. Schn. p. 88 ;
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 550.

Perca brunnich, Lacep. ix, p. 412.

Capros aper, Lacep. iv, p. 591 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 305, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 380 ;
Boase, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 114; Harvey, P. Z. S. 1836, p. 54; Yarrell, Brit.
Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 169, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 190 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 258 ; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 252 ; Kidd, Zoologist, 1843, p. 91, c. fig. ; Cuv. and Val. x. p. 30,
pi. cclxxxi ; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Sc. Poiss. p. 65 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111.
Poiss. pi. Ix, f. 2 ; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183 ; Andrews, Nat. Hist. Rev.
1858, p. 188 ; Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat, Hist. (3), 1866, xvii, p. 237 ; White,
Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 41; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 495 ; Canest. Faun. Ital. p. Ill;
Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. p. 28; Steindachner, Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 45 ;
Moieau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 475, c. fig.

Zeus Childrenii, Bowd. Excur. Madeira, p. 124.

Boar-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 142, pi. xcvi.

B. v, D. 9/23-25, P. 13, V. 1/5, A. 3/23-24, Coec. pyl. 2-3. Vert. 10/12-13.

Length of head 3} to 3^, of caudal fin 4| to 5, height of body 2| to 2| in the
total length. Eye In the upper half of the depth of the head, diameter 2 to 2|
in the length of the head, 4/5 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 2/3
to 3/4 of a diameter apart. Body strongly compressed, both the upper and lower
profiles of the snout concave. The bones of the head roughened, the posterior
limb of the premaxillaries extends backwards to opposite the middle of the eyes.
Jaws equal m length anteriorly, the posterior extremity of the maxilla does not
extend so far as to beneath the front edge of the eye. Preopercle serrated in
its whole extent, likewise, but not so coarsely, the suborbital ring. Posterior
nostril oval and much larger than the anterior, which is nearly circular. Teeth
minute in the jaws and on the vomer, none on the palatines or on the tongue.
Fins spines of first dorsal strong, the third and fourth the longest, twice as high
as the longest rays, and equalling about half the height of the body below

CARANGIML 135

them : rays of the second dorsal low, those in the last portion of the fin
highest. Ventral spine strong, its outer edge and also those of the rays being
exceedingly rough, the fin is inserted beneath the base of the pectoral, which
latter is about half the length of the head. Anal spines weak. Caudal rounded.
Scales small, very rough, having small spinate points directed posteriorly, those
on the head with less distinct spinate elevations : this makes the body feel quite
rough when the hand is passed from behind forwards, which sensation is not
experienced when stroking the fish from the head towards the tail. A roughened
ridge along the bases of the second dorsal and anal fins. Lateral-line ascending
from opposite the eye to nearly the base of the first dorsal fin, when it bends
downwards, forming a semi-circle, being lost below the base of the second dorsal.
Goscal appendages three rather large ones in all I have examined. Colours
of an orange-red, with a rather darker band over the base of the tail, while the
outer edge of the ventral is darker than the remainder of the fin. In one
example the body had numerous narrow white vertical bands : in another, a row
of small black spots along the base of the dorsal fin. Some which were placed
in a darkish tank in an Aquarium, June 18th, 1880, became as follows on
July 12th : They all seemed in good health, were livel} r , but strangely altered in
colour. They may be described as of a straw colour, with broad dark vertical
bands of a deep brown hue. The first passed over the head : the second from
the first dorsal fin down to the outer third of the ventral : the third from the
second dorsal curved downwards and rather backwards to the anal fin : while the
fourth band was over the free portion of the tail, the outer edge of which fin was
white. Looking from above down upon these fish the bands were seen to meet on
the back, while after death they almost entirely disappeared. On August 13th,
two still survived, but the water was rather clearer, while the weather had been
brighter, and the intensity of the dark bands had decreased, while the red was
a little more apparent. Mr. Dunn tells me that after spawning he observed the
bands decrease in intensity. Yarrell mentions an example with seven transverse
orange coloured bands ; he also refers to a specimen belonging to Mr. Thompson,
which had a bright silvery patch with a scarlet border in the middle of its
side.

Names. From the shape of its snout, which is capable of being greatly
protruded, it has obtained the designation of boar-fish, it is also said to grunt, but
this appears doubtful, however, it has been stated to emit an odour the reverse
of agreeable, but which I could not discover. At Plymouth it is sometimes
known as cuckoo-fish and cook-wrasse. At Lossiemouth it has been termed
sun-fish. Le capros sanglier, French.

Habits. These are but little known, but it appears to prefer moderately deep
water in the vicinity of rocks. Along sandy coasts they are frequently cast up
dying or dead, especially after strong gales of wind, or else left on the shore as
the tide recedes, and have sometimes been found entangled in seaweed. In an
aquarium they do not try to conceal themselves, and Mr. Dunn found that they
readily consumed pieces of pilchards. Small crustaceans, also molluscs, have
been found in their stomachs. Wounds from their spines are somewhat dreaded
by fishermen as being rather poisonous or perhaps very irritant.

Breeding. July 20th, 1880, Mr. Dunn observed that many of these fish had
spawned in his tank ; the spawn all floated in the water just below the surface, and
seemed to be of the same specific gravity as the sea water. The tank being
beneath the surface it all floated away. Some taken in March, 1879, off Dorset-
shire, were found to contain spawn. Mr. Baker took one full of spawn in
the Bristol Channel, in May, 1850. Risso observed that in the Mediterranean
it deposited its spawn in April.

As food. They cannot be of any importance, having so little to eat upon
them, but Mr. Penney, who had some fried, reported them as delicious, their
flesh possessing a creamy whiteness and a delicate flavour (Land and Water,
April 5th, 1879). Mr. Couch, who tasted some, did not recommend them, neither
did Risso.

Habitat. Mediterranean during the spring and autumn, but are not

136 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

abundant : they seem to be more common in the Gulf of Lyons. Locally
abundant off the south coast of Britain, they extend to Madeira, from whence
Lowe sent specimens to Yarrell.

The first capture recorded in the British Isles was in Mount's Bay, October,
1825 : then solitary examples at Bridgewater in 1833 : in 1836 one was
taken on the south coast of Devonshire, and one at Teignmouth about the same
time : at Lossiemouth in 1839, when the sj)ecimen, 7 inches long, was sent to the
Elgin Museum. On March 6th, 1842, another was found alive on the beach at
Brighton, and considered such a rare acquisition that it was sent for Her Majesty's
acceptance, when H.R.H. the Prince Consort was the first who recognized and
correctly identified the fish as the Capros aper.

One was taken at Falmouth in 1841, while on August 12th, 1843, the shore on
the western side of Plymouth was strewn with numbers captured by trawlers,
who threw them overboard when turning out their nets. A strong easterly
wind is said to have been blowing, and which was surmised to have driven
them inshore. Mr. Gatcombe, in the Zoologist, p. 429, observed: "I should
say there were more than a thousand of them, and almost all of the most
beautiful colours, some quite crimson, others more scarlet or pink, but all more
or less beautifully banded or striped. I found, however, that these bands soon
faded or disappeared altogether on being exposed to the light and air." The
fishermen stated that within a few years these fish have swarmed to such an
extent as to have become a perfect pest, and that in many instances the trawlers
have actually been obliged to change their fishing ground in order to be out
of their way. Such immense numbers often got into the trawl that holes had
to be cut in the net to allow the fish to escape, as it was found almost
impossible to lift such a great bulk on board without carrying away their gear.

In July, 1844, about two hundred were taken in a trawl (the first that had
been tried) off the Runnel Stone, and others continued to be captured for three
months in the neighbourhood and along the coast near Land's End, a tract
not much visited by the Mount's Bay fishing boats (Holme, Zool. p. 769). In
1845 more were taken in the same locality : one at Falmouth in June, 1846 :
another at Bridgewater in May, 1850, which proved to be full of spawn, and
in 1852 one in the Moray Firth (Gordon, Zool. p. 3459), and many other
solitary instances were subsequently recorded. 1866 one from Devonshire. In
March, 1868, an immature example was washed ashore in White Sands Bay,
Land's End, having a well-defined black spot at the upper part of the base of
the caudal fin, and another was captured the same month (Cornish, Zool. p. 1222).
Since then I find the following instances recorded in the Zoologist. One
from the Scilly Isles in 1870, where the fishermen declared they had not
previously seen it : in June, 1873, one was taken at Hastings, 5 inches long :
one from Torcross in 1875, and another in September from Poole : a shoal of
fifteen taken on the south-west coast of Cornwall, and exhibited in the Crystal
Palace Aquarium. July 4th, 1877, one in the Isle of Wight. During May,
1879, numbers were cast ashore in a sickly state at Bournemouth : others
were taken at Rye and Hastings, while four were washed ashore on the
Dorsetshire coast on the sand banks at Poole during the night of March 30th,
some of them contained spawn. April the same year two were recorded from
Exmouth : two from Torquay in February : in May one was picked up on the
beach at Eastbourne ; and another brought alive into Grimsby from the mouth
of the Humber.

Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey, in his very interesting remarks upon the fishes
of that locality, written in October, 1878, observed : " Common here from the
Start to the Lizard : these past five years they seem to be on the increase,
thousands are yearly caught by Plymouth trawlers off Deadman Headland, and
thousands more are brought to land by our drift fishermen. In June and
July last year I had over 150 alive in my tanks at one time."

In 1879 Mr. Gunn recorded one picked up alive, May 16th, near Eastbourne,
and Mr. Carrington reported the capture of other examples from various parts of
the south and south-east coast of England during the month of June. The localities

CARANGID^E. 137

given are Weymouth, Bournemouth, Sheerness, Harwich, and Southend-on-Sea.
June 18th, 1880, about sixteen were brought alive to the Westminster Aquarium.
I first saw them being transferred to a tank of still water. The most lively used
their fins like other fishes, but as they got worse the dorsal commenced working
at a great rate, though not so rapidly as in Zeus fab er. They sank down and
died, the head being kept highest, but some turned over on to their backs.
This fish has also been captured in Scotland, as already observed. Edward
also informs us of another example having been taken near Covie, in Banffshire,
in August, 1862 ; while in Ireland Andrews obtained it in a trawl in 1867, off
Ventry Harbour.

This fish, the appearance of which in Britain was first noticed in 1825, is
now in abundance in limited tracts, and taken from March until October.
It is remai'kable, in that it may be banded or plain, the bands, it having been
suggested, being due to the example having been in a dark locality.

Attains to 7 inches in length.

138 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family, XIII CYTTID.E, Roup.

Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranchise present. Body elevated and
compressed. Gill-openings wide : eyes lateral. The infraorbital bones do not
articulate with the preopercle. Minute teeth in the jaws and vomer, present
or absent from the palatine bones. Two dorsal fins placed close together, the
first spinous : ventrals thoracic. Scales, when present, small : or osseous
bucklers may exist. No anal papilla. Air-bladder present (in Zeus). Pyloric
appendages numerous. Vertebrae exceed 10 abdominal and 14 caudal.

Geographical distribution. These fishes are found in the temperate and
semi-tropical seas of both hemispheres.

Genus I. Zeus, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body elevated and strongly
compressed. Mouth very protractile, its cleft deep. Occipital crest high. Small
teeth on the jaws and vomer, but absent from the palatine bones. Two dorsal
fins placed close together, the first with nine to ten spines, and the length of its
base about equal to that of the second dorsal. A row of bony plates, often armed
with spines, along the sides of the bases of the dorsal and anal fins : also a rote
of bony plates, usually armed ivith spines, on the ventral surface from the throat
to the ventral fin. Scales, when present, small. Air-bladder large. Pyloric
appendages numerous.

These fishes have been considered by some Ichthyologists as constituting a
distinct Family Zeim:. Gill has separated from Zeus those forms which more
exclusively inhabit deep water, constituting them into a genus termed Zynopsis.

As already observed, many fishes undergo remarkable modifications during
their gradual change from youth to age, and Agassiz (Am. Sc. Nat. 1865, iii,
p. 56) considered Argyropelecus hemigymnus, Cocco, to be the young of Zeus
faber. This Kner (Verb. z. b. Ges. Wien, 1865, p. 288) showed to be incorrect,
as the gill-rakers of the last are long, but very short in Zeus, whether old or
young.

Geographical distribution. From Scandinavia to the British Isles and through
the Mediterranean : also along the eastern portion of the Atlantic Ocean to the
Cape of Good Hope : as well as Japanese and Australian seas.

1. Zeus faber, Plate XL VIII.

Zeus s. Faber, Pliny, ix, c. 18, xxxii, c. 11. Faber, Ovid, Hal. v, 110; Colum.
viii, c. 16 ; Wotton, viii, c. 181, fol. 160 b ; Salv. p. 203 ; Aldrov. i, c. 25, p. 112 ;
Jonston, lib. i, tit. 2, c. 1, Art. 18, t. xviii, f. 1, 2 ; Piay, p. 99. Faber sive gallus
marinus, Rondel, xi, c. 19, p. 328; Rutty, i. p. 366; Gesner, pp. 369, 439;
Willughby, p. 294, t. S. 16 ; Artedi, Gen. p. 50 ; Gronov. Zooph. p. 96, No. 311
and Mus. Ich. i, p. 47. Poule de mer, Duhamel, Peches, ii, Sect, v, p. 86. Boree,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 221, pi. xli (Ed. 2), iii, p. 296, pi. xlv ; Brunn.
Pise. Massil. p. 33.

Zeus spinosus, Linn. Mus. Ad. Er. 1754, p. 67, t. 31, f. 2.

Zeus faber, Linn. Syst. i, p. 454 ; Bloch, Fisch. Deutsch. iii, p. 24, t. xli ; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1223 ; Lacep. iv, p. 577; Bl. Sch. p. 94; Donovan, i, pi. viii; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 285, pi. 41 ; Turton, p. 95 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 303, and Eur. Merid.
iii, p. 379 ; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 218 ; Martens, Reise Nach Venedig, ii, p. 435 ;
Cuv. and Val. x, p. 6 ; Cuv. Resrne Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. Ix, f. 1; Tarrell, Brit.
Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 162, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 183 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 251 ; Templeton,

CYTTID^E. 139

Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409 ; Johnston, Berwick. N. H. F. Club, 1838, i,
p. 171 ; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 60, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 220 ; Jenyns,
p. 367 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 2-52 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 128 ; Thompson,
K Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 96 ; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183 ; Val. in Webb
and Berth. lies Canar. Poiss. p. 59; Guichen. Explor. So. Alger. Poiss. p. 64;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 38 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 393 ; Schlegel, De Dieren
Neder. p. 15, pi. ii, f . 1 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 44 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's,
p. 173; Steind. Ich. Span. n. Port. 1868, p. 14; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital.
p. 26 ; Liitken, Spol. Atlan. p. 198 ; Morean, Poiss. France, ii, p. 467.

Zeus pungio, Cuv. and Val. x, p. 25, pi. cclxxx ; Gnichen. I.e. p. 64; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p 394 ; Steind. 1. c. p. 16, t. vi ; Moreau, 1. c. p. 427, c. 'fig. {species
with long supra- scapula spine.)

JJoree, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 118, pi. lxxxix.

B. vii, D. 10/22-23, P. 13, V. 1/6, A. ^ T *^, C. 13, Vert. 14/18.

Length of head 2| to 3, of caudal fin 4|, height of body 2j in the total
length. The greatest thickness of the body equals 1/5 of its height. Eye high
up, one diameter in the postorbital length of the head. Head as high as long.
Mouth very protractile, its cleft oblique, the maxilla being nearly perpendicular
when it is closed, and not reaching backwards to beneath the eye : lower jaw the
longer and terminating posteriorly in two spines. Opercles spineless. Scapular
region ridged in the adult, and having some spines in the young : some also at
occiput. Teeth finely cardiform, present on the jaws and vomer, but not on
the tongue or palatine bones. Gill-rakers few, short, and finely spinate, Fins
first dorsal almost continuous with the soft portion, its spines rather strong,
gradually increasing in length to the fourth, the interspinous membrane is
externally prolonged into filaments of varying lengths : while at the base of each
spine is an outwardly projecting spinous process. Second dorsal increasing in length
to its third quarter, and armed along its base with from seven to ten spines situated
on a bony plate, each of which consists of two portions : the largest, curved and
broad, is directed somewhat backwards, while the shorter portion is produced
outwards and a little forwards : its rays unbranched (in Z. Australis, Richardson,
" the last rays of the dorsal and anal are divided to their base "). Pectoral short.
Ventral as long as the head, and having (in the young) a spinate base : a double
ridge extends from this fin to the vent, armed with eight lateral spines on either
side. The anal spines and rays are similarly armed to those of the dorsal fin.
Second anal spine the longest and somewhat the strongest. Caudal rounded.
Scales not imbricate, a few along the cheeks. Lateral-line descends in a gentle
curve from opposite the upper edge of the eye to above the middle of the anal
fin, from whence it proceeds direct to the centre of the base of the tail. Viscera
stomach rather large, the narrow pyloric portion encircled by numerous ccecal
appendages, which in some cases are branched. Air-bladder elongated, with the
appearance of a slight constriction in its posterior fourth, while a rounded
muscular body exists in its anterior fourth, from which passes a tendon. On
opening the air-bladder, its lining membrane is found to cease at the commence-
ment of the last fourth of the organ, and here it forms a very low valve. In the
interior of the upper half of the air-bladder is a narrow, vermiform, red gland,
of a semi-circular form. Colours olive gray, with a yellowish tinge, and usually
yellow wavy horizontal bands. In the middle of either side, just posterior to the
pectoral fin, a circular or oval black spot surrounded by a narrow yellow ring.
Fins gray, in some examples the ventrals are nearly black : in others, two rather
dark horizontal bands pass along both the dorsal and anal fins.

Varieties. Zeus pungio, C V. has a shoulder spine as long or longer than the
diameter of the eye, while in Z. faber it is hardly visible in adults, and
certainly these differences cannot be referred to the age or the sex of the fish.
Occasionally the lateral blotch is absent. This form appears confined to the
Mediterranean.

Zeus Japonicus, Cuv. and Val. x, p. 24 ; Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen. xxvi, Japan,
p. 105; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 394, and Z. faber Japonicus, Schlegel, Fauna Japon.

140 ' ACANTHOPTERYGII.

p. 123, pi. 66a, appear to differ from Zeus Australis, Richardson, Voyage Erebus
and Terror, pp. 36, 138, pi. xxv, fig. 1 (and which Dr. Giinther has united with
Zeus faber), in that Z. Japoniacs has only six or seven bony plates along the bases
of the soft dorsal and anal fins, while Z. Gapensis has eleven in the same situation.
A stuffed specimen of Zeus Gapensis, Cuv. and Val., or the Cape species
of this genus, about 24 inches in length, exists in the British Museum, the
length of the head of which is 1/3 of that of the total. If identical with
Zeus faber, the double row of lateral spinous plates along the base of the
second dorsal have lost one process : the abdominal spines have likewise become
plates.

. Names. The Greek name Zeus appertained also to Jupiter : while the latin
term Faber was given it due to the fancied resemblance many of its bones had
to tools used by mechanics. The common term, dory or doree or John dory, is
probably merely* a corruption of Jaune doree, or " golden-yellow," which has
reference to its colour. Superstition, regardless of its absence from the Lake of
Gennesaret, has attributed the marks upon its sides to the effects of St. Peter's
finger and thumb when he captured a fish in order to obtain the tribute money.
This fish was formerly suspended in churches and the legend of the mark duly
detailed and implicitly believed. Some even averred that the spots were elegant
representations of the coin which was found. Others, however, thought that as
this fish does not exist in the waters where this miracle was performed it is
unlikely that to it belongs the honour attributed. Another derivation for
" John doree " is the name janitor e, by which it is known in Venice : a name
likewise applied to St. Peter, the keeper of the keys ; in short, the doorkeeper
of a better world. Again, the haddock has been pointed out as possessing two
black spots of a similar character, irrespective of which, as in the East, numerous
fresh water and a few marine species are thus marked, it seems a rather bold
assumption to advocate that this form must be a descendant of the identical
species referred to. St. Christopher is also credited with having captured this
fish, and left a record on its sides, as shown by the marks on the dory. Sir T.
Browne, in his list of Norfolk Pishes, 1662, observed " the Faber maximus
sometimes found very large . . . we often meet with in these seas, some-
times called a peter-fish." Merrett, in his Pinax MerumNaturaliumBritannicarum,
published in" 1666, speaks of this fish as Doree. Another, but more far-fetched,
derivation of the origin of the term "John Dory " has been advanced, and is that
it is a corruption of the Gascon term Jan, or a "cock," and that consequently
it means " gilt cock," and as a further evidence, the circumstance that this fish
in southern Europe is termed gallo, or " cock," from the crest on its nape. Alston
(Zool. 1866, p. 435) observed that in Arran one was called golden haddock.
Sion dori, Welsh. Be zonnevisch, Dutch. Le zee, French.

Habits. This fish is somewhat sluggish, and said to be frequently carried
along by currents, while in swimming it is usually seen somewhat on one side,
which enables it to rest against a rock as well as to see both above and below it.
Although its movements are generally slow they become accelerated when it
desires food, which it pursues by a sort of succession of jerks. Couch suggested
that the filamentous prolongations from its fins are used as decoys, and that it
buries itself or lies on the sand, where it waves them as the Lophius does its
tentacles. It is a great wanderer, and in the winter many appear to retire to
deep water, returning in the spring in excellent condition. It seems to prefer
during the warm months rough ground to deep water, as well as sandy bays
where weeds and small fishes abound. It has been said to grunt or groan when
being removed from the water. A member of the present Fishery Department
informed me that he distinctly heard some just captured emit a squeaking sound.
It has a very voracious appetite. At the Westminster Aquarium this fish will
eat " sand smelts," and has been known when hungry to swallow a young
" bass." One which weighed 1 lb. 1 oz. was found to contain eighteen sprats, two
sand smelts, and one cuttle fish, besides a number of small fish in a decomposed
state. From another, 12^ inches in length, Couch took twenty-five " flounders,"
some of which were 2} inches in length : three half -grown " father lashers " and

CYTTIML 141

five stones from the beach. It, however, was so gorged that it permitted itself to
be taken by the hand.

Mr. Savile Kent has drawn particular attention to the manner in which this
fish uses its fins, the movements of which he, with great justice, likens to that of
the dorsal fin in the pipe-fish. This rapid motion affects the soft rays and
inter-radial membrane of the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins : all, or merely some
of which, may be in motion at the same time. This may be perceived both when
they are ascending in the water, descending, or even when reclining over on
one side : but they are likewise able to move their fins more slowly as generally
seen in fishes.

Many cases of ivhitloio, involving the loss of joints of fingers, are occasioned
from injuries inflicted by the spines placed at the bases of the dorsal and anal
fins in these fishes -

Means of capture and baits. It is obtained most abundantly during summer
and autumn, but some are captured throughout the year. It will take a spinning
bait : a baby-spinner tagged with a small strip of prepared rays skin and a
rod with fine tackle has been recorded as killing. The best bait is a small fish,
especially a young sea-bream, Pagellus, hooked by the tail or back. This is
swallowed head first, by which means the spines of the bream are said to act
like a hook. It will also take pieces of mackerel, pilchard, or cuttle.

Breeding. Very prolific, and minute young ones are common. Mr. Dunn
thinks it spawns in winter : the young are 2 or 3 inches in length in August,

In the middle of last century a sudden advance in the price of these fish
took place. Couch quotes a MSS. note as follows : " Dorys yt used to be
sold for three to four pence a piece are now two shillings or half-a-crown a
good one." The same author remarks on upwards of sixty one autumn being
hauled on shore in one ground seine, the entire lot of which realized nine
shillings.

As food. It is considered by some to be in the best condition for the table
during the last four months of the year, but others recommend it as being
of superior excellence from January to March : while fishmongers prefer them
from the Devonshire coast. It was much prized by the Romans, who deemed
it to be sacred to Neptune. John Quin, the actor, who died at Bath in 1766,
when 73 years of age, is commonly reported to have added this delicacy
to our tables, and some have even assei^ted that so pleased was he
with it that it was commonly known as John's dory. Prior to his time
prejudice has been said to have banished it from the repasts of the rich,
owing to its hideous aspect. Rutty (1772) observed, respecting the County of
Dublin, that "it is frequent and excellent food, preferred by some to the
turbot, though scarce known here before the year 1729." Borlase, in Cornwall,
1755, remarked, " this fish is of firm substance and much coveted, but rather
dry in comparison of the sole and turbot." Sir J. Banks placed it among
" the most valuable of fishes, as it required no sauce." Some good judges of
eating rank it next after the turbot.

Mode of cooking. They are somewhat improved by not being cooked for two
or three days after their capture : large ones should have their fins cut off, and look
best if the head is removed. After having been well cleaned they are boiled
very slowly, and Quin recommended that this should be done in sea-water :
they may be served with lobster or shrimp sauce, or without any. Or the
fish may be prepared similarly to turbot, or stewed. In Italy, equal parts of
wiue and water are employed when cooking these fish : while they are mostly
eaten cold with a sauce of oil and lemon juice, and a sprinkling of salt and
pepper (Badham). Small ones are best baked, having a few bits of butter
on them to prevent their drying up wdien in the oven : they take about a
quarter of an hour.

Habitat. Has been taken as far north as Norway : seems to be absent
from the Baltic, but extending southwards towards the British shores, where
it increases in numbers : it is also found along the Atlantic coasts of Europe,

142 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

as well as throughout the Mediterranean. If the Z. Oapensis, &c, are merely
varieties, it extends to the Cape, also to the seas of Japan and South Aiistralia.

In Great Britain it is common along the south and west coasts, becoming
rarer proceeding towards the north. At Hartlepool Hogg recorded its
occurrence in February, 1860, observing that it had not been taken there
previously. Paget mentions its capture at Yarmouth, and Johnston off
Berwickshire.

Parnell informs us that in the Pirth of Forth seldom more than one or
two are captured during the course of a year : it is rather rare at St. Andrew's
(Mcintosh), but not uncommon as a summer visitor in Banffshire, where it
is mostly taken in the salmon nets (Edward) : while two were obtained off
Elginshire (Gordon, Zoologist, 1852, p. 3459). It does not appear to be included
among the fishes of the Orkneys.

In Ireland it is found all round the coast, but sparingly in some localities.
Thompson says that their 'numbers increase northwards, and he was credibly
informed that about twenty are taken in the vicinity of Portrush for one in
Belfast Bay.

In August, 1879, one at Norwich, which weighed 14 lb., was recorded in
" Land and Water." Couch mentions another, 22 inches in length, which
scaled 181b.

XIPHIID^E. 143

Third group Xiphiiformes.
The snout and upper jaw is produced into a long sword-shaped weapon.

Family, XIV XIPHIIDiE, Agassis.

The sword-fishes.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchiae present. Eyes lateral. Body com-
pressed, the upper jaw (comprising ethmoid, vomer, and pre-maxillaries)
produced into a long sword-shapsd process: cleft of mouth deep. Teeth, when
present, rudimentary. Scales absent or in the form of rudimentary dermal
productions. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages numerous, when present.

These fishes are divisible into two distinct genera, Xiphias, destitute of ventral
fins and having a somewhat flattened snout : and the more tropical Histiophorus,
which possesses ventral fins, while its snout is more or less of a triangular shape.
The fry of these fishes are likewise capable of being discriminated. The
young in Xiphias has its jaws elongated, the two being of nearly equal length :
also the supraorbital region as well as the angle of the preopercle spinate,
while the forehead has not the abrupt depression that exists in Histiophorus. This
latter has large spines at the occiput and angle of the preopercle. Davy observes
that the specific gravity of the blood of the sword-fish he found to be P051
taken from a large one caught in the Bosphorous during the month of
December.

In the European seas and extending into those of the tropics there exist the
sword-fishes (Xtphiidj:), which are well known to attack whales, and occasionally
vessels, which they would appear to mistake for their gigantic opponents, and
some authors have even believed that they will vent their spleen upon rocks,
perhaps mistaking such for the sides of their hereditary antagonists. These fishes
attain to a very large size, as 15 feet or (some assert) 20 feet or more in length.
There may be two ways in which the foundering of a ship is occasioned when
pierced by these creatures either a leak may be at once set up, or else the
perforating snout may act as a plug, not permitting leakage until decomposition
has set in or the salt water has softened the bones.

In 1874 the " Cashmere," a new steamer, of about 1400 tons burden, was nearly
lost, owing to an injury inflicted by a sword-fish. The vessel was on her course from
Bombay to Calcutta, when, without any apparent cause, she began to make water,
while all attempts to discover the cause of the leak were futile, until, after the
removal of a large part of the cargo, the lightened ship rose in the water, and a
piece of the snout of a sword-fish was observed. This had pierced the copper and
timber of the ship and penetrated some 9 or 10 inches beyond, breaking off close
to the copper, probably from the impossibility of withdrawing it. The sword
had not merely pierced the ship, but split the plank for a considerable distance
on each side of the point of contact. In this instance there could have been no
doubt that a leak had occurred, while an examination of the ship demonstrated
that it had been entirely clue to the injury inflicted by one of these fishes.

The ship " Royal George," of about 500 tons burden, experienced a dreadful
hurricane in the Bay of Bengal. So furious was the tempest, that, in addition
to the loss of the main and mizen masts, the bowsprit was found broken off close
to the hull of the vessel. Its diameter was 23 inches, and, on examining its base,
the snout of a sword-fish was found projecting about 6 inches beyond the
surface. A similar occurrence took place in 1833, and the perforated planks,
with the imbedded sword, were presented to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and
are now in the Calcutta Museum.

The British Museum possesses a specimen of planks from a ship's side, in
which may be seen the sword of one of these fishes, which has penetrated
22 inches into the timber. In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons is the

144 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

section of the bow of a South Sea whaler, which has been penetrated through
13^ inches of solid timber by the snout of a swordfish, which latter is 12 inches long
and 5 inches in circumference. When H.M.S. "Leopard" was repaired in 1725,
after her return from the coast of Guinea, it was found that a swordfish had
pierced her outer sheathing, 1 inch in thickness, nest a 3-inch plank, and
finally 4^ inches further into a solid beam.

The foregoing facts seem to be sufficient to demonstrate that in numerous
instances swordfishes have attacked vessels and occasioned leaks. The reason
why they should act thus leads us to inquire what can be the common use
of such a weapon to a fish which merely possesses small teeth in its jaws ?
The ancients asserted that it transfixes fish with its snout for the purpose of
obtaining food a process which has been compared by one writer to skewering
larks but without being able to obtain its prey. We have likewise been
informed that the proper use of this sword-like projection is to turn up the
sand, &c, to hunt for minute sea creatures on which it lives. If this long
process is intended simply for digging up sand, it seems curious why it should
have been so rigid, for a softer, wider, and niore tactile organ, such as exists
in the snout of the sturgeon, would be better suited for such a purpose. I
would suggest first, that the rostrum is not intended for turning up the sand :
secondly, that it is intended entirely for offensive purposes, or to obtain food :
and lastly, that these fish do not solely live upon " minute sea creatures,"
although, doubtless, they occasionally devour cuttles, sepia, &c.

Cuvier informs us that the European form (Xiphias) which he examined
contained the remains of fish. I was on the Madras beach on the evening of
February 15th, 1867, when I saw a swordfish, Histiophorus gladius, 9 feet in
length, being carried by two fishermen towards their huts ; for, although this
fish is unmarketable, their families consume it. Its long back fin was of a
bright Prussian blue, covered with large dark spots ; hence its native name
Myl-meen, or "peacock-fish." I purchased the example, and found inside it a
full-sized Indian mackerel (Scomber microlepidotus) , two large half-beaks
(Hemiramphi), and numerous small fish. Still, eating merely small forms would
scarcely seem to account for the necessity of its being provided with an elongated,
sword-like snout, which, added to the great rapidity of its movements, would
render it a truly formidable opponent. Belonius tells us that shoals of tunnies
(Orcynus thynnus), in the Mediterranean, are as much alarmed at the presence
of a swordfish as a flock of sheep are at the sight of a wolf. It pursues them
with great pertinacity, and transfixes them with its snout : but recent authors
have not remarked on its doing such to obtain food. In Daniel's " Rural Sports"
we read that " in the Severn, near Worcester, a man bathing was struck, and
absolutely received his death wound from a swordfish. The fish was caught
immediately afterwards, so that the fact was ascertained beyond a doubt."

It was thus evident that the swordfish eats other fish ; that it can kill them
by transfixion : and it has been known to vent its strength upon a human being.
A step further takes us to the fact that it will attack even whales, and, as it eats
flesh, we may perhaps conclude that hunger induces them to do so for the
purpose of obtaining food. Capt. Crow, on a voyage to Memel, tells us that one
morning during a calm, when near the Hebrides, all hands were called up at
3 a.m. to witness a battle between several of the fish termed thrashers or fox
sharks (Alopecias vulpes) and some swordfish, on the one side, and an enormous
whale on the other. As soon as the whale's back appeared above the water the
thrashers, springing several yards into the air, descended with great violence
upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted upon him the most severe blows
with their long tails, the sounds of which resembled the reports of muskets
fired at a distance. The swordfish in turn attacked the distressed whale, stabbing
from below ; and, thus beset on all sides and wounded, the water around him
was dyed with blood. Couch was of opinion that as the swordfish has no teeth
to tear the flesh, and he supposed it could only swallow its food whole, it must
have been gratifying its appetite with blood. At a meeting of the Linnean
Society in 1881, Mr. Howard Saunders observed that he had personally

XIPHIIML 145

witnessed a fight between a whale and a fish, which was stated to be a thrasher
shark* assisted^ by a swordfish. He distinctly saw its elongated sword-like
snout glancing in the light after it had made a plunge at the whale and missed
its mark.

Dr. Jerome Smith, in his History of the Fishes of Massachusetts, states
that on a calm sunny day during the previous summer (1832), as a pilot was
leisurely rowing his little skiff, he was suddenly roused from his seat by the
plunge of a swordfish, thrusting its long spear, more than 3 feet through
the bottom of his slender bark ; but the pilot broke it off with the butt of his
oar before the submarine assassin had time to withdraw it. Irrespective of
using this organ to obtain food, it is evidently occasionally employed when
fighting with its enemies.

Lastly, I may advert to the case of the ship " Dreadnought," which in 1868,
while on her voyage from Ceylon to London, suddenly sprung a leak, and, on
an examination being made, a round hole, about 1 inch in diameter, was found in
the copper sheathing of the vessel. Those who had insured the ship claimed
3000 on the ground that the injuiy had been inflicted by one of these fish,
while the insurance company contended that some other cause had been at work.
After a protracted trial the jury returned as a verdict that the damage had been
caused " by contact with some substance other than water, and that probably it
was caused by a swordfish." In the Field for May 14th, 1881, it is recorded
that the^ Liverpool barque " Junak " had been injured by one of these fishes, and
that a distinct shock was believed to have been felt at the time of the blow.

Although the Histiophorus is taken off the Madras coast in large seine
nets, such a mode is not found successful in the Mediterranean, where the Xiphias
has a more cutting edge to its sword, while the method of capture appears to
have remained unchanged for centuries. A man ascends one of the cliffs which
overhang the sea, and as soon as he spies the fish, gives notice, either by his
voice or by signs as to the course it has taken. Another individual in a boat
climbs the mast, and on seeing the fish directs the rowers to it. As soon as he
considers that they have got within reach, he descends, and taking in his hand
a harpoon to which a cord is attached, strikes it into the fish, sometimes from a
considerable distance. After struggling for some time the exhausted animal is
dragged into the boat, the whole process somewhat resembling a whale fishery on
a miniature scale.

Genus I. Xiphias, Artedi.
Machcera, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice well developed. Body elongated and
somewhat compressed. The upper jaw flattened, sword shaped and (except in the
very young) much produced beyond the lower jaw. No teeth in the jaws, vomer, or
palatine bones. Gill-openings wide. Tivo dorsal fins in adults (one in the young).
Nofi.nlets. Ventrals absent. Two anal fins in adult* (one in the young). Caudal
forked. Scales rudimentary : a raised heel along the middle of the side of the tail.
Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages many.

In the young, as when 190 millim. long, the two jaws, observes Liitken, are well
armed with comparatively strong teeth. All the body, including the head and
the rostrum, is clothed with non-imbricated scales, which are keeled and ciliated
that is to say, furnished with spines or teeth upon the keel. Two rows of these
scales, which strike one by their size, extend along the back on each side of the
dorsal fin, and two others along the belly on each side of the anal fin. These
scales are present in the youngest Xiphias, whereas they are absent from
Histiophorus. Young examples of Xiphias have transverse bands of colour.

* See Alopecias vulpes for further remarks on this question.

10

146 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1. Xiphias gladius, Plate XLIX, fig. 1 and 2.

tSi<piaQ, Arist. ii, c. 13, 15, viii, c. 19; Athen. vii, p. 314; iElian, ix, c. 40,
xiv, c. 23 ; Oppian, i, 8, ii, 48.

Xiphias, Ovid. Hal. v, 67 ; Pliny, lib. xxxii, c. 2 ; Rondel, viii, c. 15, p. 251,
c. fig. ; Gesner, p. 1049 and 1598, f. 20, c. fig. ; Artedi, Syn. p. 30. L'Eeron
de mer, Bellon. Xiphia sen gladio, Jonston, De Pise. lib. i, tit. 1, c. i, Art 3,
t. iv, f. 2. Swordfish, Willnghby, Ich. p. 161, t. 1, 27, f. 2 ; Ray, p. 52 ; Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 160, pi. xxvi (Ed. 2), iii, p. 216, pi. xxx. Spada, Cetti,
Hist. Sard, iii, pp. 93, 94, 145. Poisson a JEpee, Duhamel, ix, p. 334.

Xiphias gladius, Linn. Syst. i, p. 432 ; Blocb, t. lxxvi ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1149 ;
Bonnaterre, Ency. Icb. p. 42, pi. xxvi, p. 92 ; Lacep. ii, p. 290, pi. ix, f . 1 ; Bl. Schn.
p. 93 ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 99, pi. xiv ; Pleni. Brewster's Journal, ii, p. 187, and
Brit. An. p. 220 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 88 ; Risso, Icb. Nice, p. 99 and Eur.
Merid. iii, p. 208 ; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 255, pi. ccxxv, ccxxvi; Storer, Report,
p. 51 ; Yarrell, Brit. Pish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 143, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 164 (Ed. 3), ii,
p. 240 ; Jenyn's Manual, p. 364 ; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 55, and
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 215 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. Illus. Poiss. pi. 1, f. 1, and
pi. Ii, f. 2, and pi. liii, f. 2 ; Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 393; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 239 ; Thompson, An. and Mag. (2), 1846, p. 314, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 95 ; Guichen. Expl. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 60 ; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 33 ; De Kay, New York Fauna, p. Ill ; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 5 ;
Nilss. Skan. Fauna, p. 147 ; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 511 ; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss.
Wien, lvii, p. 396, or Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 46 ; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 10,
pi. i, f. 3, 4; Hector, Trans. New Zealand Inst, vii, p. 246 ; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 51 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 16 ; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. 1880,
p. 28 ; Liitken, Spol. Atlan. p. 592 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 526.

Xiphias Bondeletii, Leach, Wem. Mem. ii, p. 58, pi. ii, f. 1, and Zool. Misc.
i, p. 62, pi. xxvii.

Sivordfish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 145, pi. xcvii.

B. vii, D. 3/43, P. 15, A. 17, C. 21.

In the example figured, which is 30 inches long, the extreme length of the
head equals the distance between the head and base of the caudal fin. Eye
3j diameters in the postorbital portion of the head. Interorbital space nearly
flat. Angle of preopercle crenulated. Snout depressed and flattened : the cleft
of the mouth reaching to nearly 1/2 a diameter posterior to the orbit. The
different proportions vary with age, and in the very young there are some
denticulations above the orbit, and two short spines at the angle of the preopercle.
Teeth true ones absent. Fins vary exceedingly with age : in the very young
(see page 148) the dorsal fin commences on the occiput and is continued until
near the tail, but it is slightly elevated anteriorly ; in the rest of its course it is
several times higher than the body. As the fish increases in age, as about
2| or 3 feet in length (plate xlix), the middle portion of the dorsal fin commences
to decrease in height, showing the anterior rays much elevated and also the last
few. The middle portion becomes more and more absorbed, until in the adult
there are two distinct dorsal fins. The anal undergoes a transformation similar
to the dorsal. Pectoral placed very low down and falciform. Scales rudimentary,
eeen in the very young in the form of two rows along the side of the dorsal
fin, and also along the abdominal edge. Air-bladder large, and with thin
walls. Colours back and upper half of the body of a dull blue or brownish
blue, becoming white on the sides and beneath. The yomig have transverse
bands.

Varieties. It is possible that the following are merely varieties of this species,
but sufficient materials hardly exist in museums at present to decide the question.
Xiphias nigricans, Lacepede, and Histiopjhorus gracilirostris, Cuv. : also Xiphias
velifer, Cuvier. The lateral keel on the side of the tail may be double, and the
dorsal fin lower or higher than the trunk.

XIPHIID^E. 147

Names. Swordfish, so named from its elongated snont, also rasour (Halliwell).
Zwaardvisch, Dutch. VEspadon, French.

Habits. This fish is very swift in its movements, wary and vigilant against
surprises, and but seldom seen alone, generally going in pairs. It frequently
migrates along with the tunnies, which some believe it does for company, others
in order to attack them. It is occasionally taken in brackish or even fresh water,
especially the Severn. As already observed (page 144) due to some cause these
fishes attack whales and objects often larger than themselves, and the question
forces itself upon our consideration if this is done from the desire to obtain
food or whether the animal is possessed of such a morose disposition that it is in a
constant state of warfare. In the Weston-super-Mare Museum is the cast of one
of these fishes, 9 feet long, captured in 1873 near the town. On its left side,
opposite the hind edge of its first anal fin, existed a large cicatrix, evidently due
to a wound consequent on an injury which had nearly transfixed it, there being
a spot on the opposite side showing to where the injury had extended. The
appearances seemed to show that it had been inflicted by another of the same
family, perhaps during the breeding season. Such may, however, be simply an
instance of matrimonial infelicity, for Lacepede considered that in spite of some
of its actions its habits are gentle and its affections lively. In short, he remarked
that if the shark were compared to a tiger, the swordfish might be classed
with the lion.

According to Couch, in August, 1861, near Westra, a Herring-hog (a species
of small whale) was attacked by a swordfish, and when thus compelled to
leap out of the water, which it did to the height of 6 feet, it was observed
that the sword had been thrust into the whale's body behind the pectoral fins.
Its leaps continued, and then it was perceived that a thrasher was assailing it
on the sides.

Bloch states that this fish sometimes feeds upon vegetable substances. Fleming
found the remains of Loligo sagittata in the stomach of one he examined.
Leach discovered some small fish inside a larofe one. Pilchards have been observed
in them, while they have been taken on a baited hook.

Means of capture. As their sharp, depressed, and latei*ally cutting snouts are
destructive to nets, the harpoon is preferred as an implement for taking them
in seas where they abound. Brydone has given an account of harpooning
these fishes in Sicily. A scout, perched on the mast of a vessel, notifies to
his comrades when he perceives a " spada " : then they all commence a chaunt
which is believed to be indispensable to success, and alluring the fish to his
destruction. The harpooner throws his implement at his victim, which he rarely
misses. Should, however, a single word of Italian be uttered the spell from
the chaunt is broken, and the fish plunges down into the vasty deep, from
which it will not again be charmed. In the Mediterranean a regular fishery
exists for their capture. Oppian describes the mode pursued as follows.
A bait was fastened by means of a sliding noose to the line at some distance
above the hook, and it was so contrived that when the fish seized the bait it
glided along until the hook stopped its progress when the fishermen knew by
the jerk that it was time to haul tight the slip knot.

Mr. North, in a 6-oared galley, captured one October 20th, 1843, 10 feet long,
off Deal, " a little way to the south of the outer beacon leading to Sandwich
Haven. He saw the fish in about 4 feet of water, rowed towards it, and observed
that it appeared far exhausted in strength : he then ventured to put a small rope
with a running noose over its tail, and after playing with it some time succeeded
in putting other ropes round the fish, and got it on board " (Zoologist, 1843,
p. 85).

Couch mentions one taken in drift nets in October, 1861, near Land's End :
and in June, 1879, one 11 feet long, became entangled in mackerel nets off
Eddjstone lighthouse, and after two hours' exertion, was hauled on board. It
is known to cause great injury to nets, and even to escape by cutting its way
out by means of its sword-shaped snout.

As food. Its flesh has been reported as excellent. Mr. Gurney (Zool.

10*

148 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1861, p. 7819) states respecting one captured in Norfolk, that its flesh when
dressed was white, palatable, and not unlike that of the sturgeon. Linnaeus
compared it to salmon. It is dressed in Italy in a manner similar to that
employed for the tunny, than which it obtains a higher price.

Diseases. It is occasionally perceived springing out of the water, attributed
by some to exuberance of joy, by others to the irritation of parasitic worms.
Philichthys xiphice, Steenst. (see An. and Mag. 1868 (4), i, p. 303), is a parasite
found in this fish. Couch gives an instance on the authority of a sailor, in
which one of these fishes, 8 or 9 feet long, was seen closely pursued by a
blue-shark, and was twice observed to leap out of the water to escape its pursuer.
The result of the chase was not ascertained.

Habitat. In Europe it extends from Scandinavia, the Baltic, North Sea,
and Atlantic through the Mediterranean. Also in the Atlantic down the
western shores of Africa to near the tropics. In the western hemisphere it is
occasionally taken in Newfoundland, and is distributed from Nova Scotia to the
West Indies. It has also been recorded from the southern hemisphere (Hector,
Trans. New Zealand Inst, vii, p. 246, likewise Cheeseman, 1. c. viii, p. 219, and
Hutton, I.e. p. 211).

During the summer and autumn, mostly from July and until even as late
as November, it is not uncommon around the coasts of Great Britain, more
especially on the south and south-west, while it is not unfrequently taken in
the Bristol Channel and Estuary of the Severn. In October, 1862, one, 9 feet
1 inch long, was taken in Essex, it had driven its sword into the mud and was
captured alive, when it was found that due to an old standing injury the end
of its snout was wanting. In October, the previous year, one, 9 feet 5 inches
long, was found partially stranded off the Norfolk coast, and drawn ashore by
a noose being placed over its tail (T. Gurney, Zool. p. 7819). In September,
1863, one, 7 feet 7 inches long and weighing 147 lb., was entangled in a
pilchard drift net off Plymouth : in its stomach were found pilchards and
cuttle fishes (J. Reading, Zool. p. 8932). In August, 1878, one, 8 feet
7 inches long and weighing 138 lb., was taken by means of a hook and line
at Mount's Bay, Cornwall (Cornish, Zool. p. 351) : in July, the same year, a
female, 9~ feet long and weighing 3g cwt., was taken in a drift net off
Devonshire (Gatcombe, Zool. p. 351). July 14th, 1879, one, 9 feet long,
was taken off the Norfolk coast in a mackerel net (Gurney, Zool. p. 342).
Numerous others are recorded. In Banffshire Edward mentions a small example
captured by a shrimper.

The remains of a portion of one taken in a net on the Wexford coast in 1786,
were sent to the Dublin University Museum.

The example (No. 1) figured, is 30 inches long, for which I am indebted
to Dr. Hubrecht, of Leyden : the smaller one, figured half natural size, is in
the Leyden Museum : it is said to attain to 15 feet in length.

YOUJvG OF XIPHIAS.

SCI^ENID^E. 149

Fourth group Acanthopterygii Sciseniformes.

Muciferous system on the head well developed. The soft dorsal usually much
more developed than the spinous, or than the anal. No pectoral filaments.

Family, XV SCItENIDJE, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchiae sometimes concealed or even absent.
Body somewhat compressed and rather elongate. Eyes lateral, of moderate or
small size. Mouth in front of or below the snout. Cheeks unarmed : preopercle
without any osseous articulation with the suborbital ring- of bones ; opercles some-
times with weak spines. Barbels present in a few genera. Muciferous system on
the head well developed. Teeth in villiform bands, the outer or the inner row of
which are often enlarged : canines present in some genera, but neither cutting
nor molar-form ones in the jaws: palate edentulous. Two dorsal fins, the spines
(8-12) of the first usually feeble, the second much more developed (22-43 rays)
than the first: anal with one or two spines and much fewer (5-18) rays than the
second dorsal: pectoral rays branched and without free filaments: ventral
thoracic with one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid or cycloid, covering the
head and snout, placed in oblique and often sinuous rows on the body. Lateral-
line complete, often continued on to the caudal fin. Stomach ccecal. Air-bladder,
when present, as a rule with branching or elongated appendages. Pyloric
appendages usually few.

In tropical countries, where these fishes are extensively distributed, the rays
pertaining to the second dorsal fin are found to be liable to great variation in
number, while the caudal becomes more obtuse as the adult stage is arrived at.
The scales are placed in oblique rows, and the number along the lateral-line rarely
corresponds with what exists in the row above or that below fit. The eye,
likewise, is comparatively much smaller in adults than in the young.

Uses. The air-bladders of many of these fishes are extensively collected along
the coasts of India as they afford a rough isinglass which meets with a ready sale
in China. As food their flesh has always appeared to me as tasteless when young,
coarse when old.

As regards classification Bleeker (Mem. stir les Scienoides, 1874) has
questioned the utility of separating the genus Scicena from the genus Umbrina
merely because the latter possesses a short central barbel beneath the symphysis
of the lower jaw. In a few Asiatic forms a rudimentary barbel is found in some
examples of Scicena, while the dentition forms a truer guide than the size and
length of the second anal spine. The two accepted British genera are Scicena,
without a barbel under the chin, and Umbrina, with a barbel at that place, but
believing the latter genus has been recorded due to an error, I have omitted it.

Geographical distribution. The fishes of this family, some of which attain to
a large size, are extensively distributed in the tropical and contiguous portions of'
the Atlantic, Indian, and North Pacific Oceans, extending into the sub-tropical
parts. They are also found in the Mediterranean, and wanderers are sometimes
taken on the south coast of Great Britain, or even further north. Some are
spread through the fresh waters of the United States. They are almost absent
from the Pacific Ocean : none have been recorded from Polynesia, and merely
two or three from Australia. In the clear waters of the Red Sea they are
unknown, but abound along the coasts of India, especially wherever there are
estuaries or the openings of rivers. They pass up tidal waters even to far above
where they have ceased to be brackish, and this they do in order to prey on their
weaker neighbours. They prefer muddy bottoms to clear water, and where
marine siluroids abound in the tropics Sciamoids are rarely far off.

150 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus I. Sci^NA (Artedi), Cuvier.

Johnius, Bloch : Corvina and Stellifer, Cnvier : Bola, sp. Ham. Buch. :
Leiostomus, Cuv. and Yal. : Coracinas, Pallas : Homoprion, Holb. : Amblyodon,
Raf . : Gheilotrema, v. Tsch. : Genyonemus, Plagioscion, Sciamops, Bairdiella,
Haploinodotus, Bhinoscion and Ophioscion, Gill : Biplolepis, Steind. : Pseudoscicena,
Bleeker.

BrancMostegals seven : pseudobranchim present. Body oblong, rather elongated
and compressed. Eyes of moderate size. Interorbital space broad, convex. Snout
rounded, sometimes overhanging the upper jaw, which last is longer than the lower,
or both are of about equal length. Cleft of 'mouth nearly or quite horizontal. No
central barbel beneath the symphysis of the lower jaw. Teeth villiform, with an outer
enlarged row in the premaxillaries, and sometimes the inner row in the mandibles
is enlarged. No distinct canines. Two dorsal fins, the first with 9-10 spines and
connected at its base to the second which is of moderate length (23-32 rays). Anal
with one or tivo spines. Scales ctenoid or cycloid, extending over the head and snout,
and' generally more or less present over the bases of the vertical fins and on the tail.
Air-bladder present (except in some American species). Pyloric appendages in
moderate numbers or few.

Bleeker divided this genus into Pseudosciama having the inner row of teeth
in the lower jaw distinctly the larger, and Johnius without any such enlarged row.

Salvianus considered the term Sciama derived from (tklu, a shade or shadow,
denoting the rapidity of its movements as it flits through the water : Rondelet,
however, considered the shadows or bands related to the markings on the sides of
the fish. M. Dufosse states that the sounds emitted by these fishes have a mean of
twenty-five seconds, and also various notes, usually degenerating into a humming
sound, either from an excess or want of intensity. He suggests that the song of
the fabled Sirens had its origin in the utterances of shoals of maigres, and tells
us also, on what he believed to be reliable testimony, that a sea captain going
up the Gironde when he first heard the maigres song, was thrown into great
alarm, supposing that his vessel had sprung a leak and water was flowing into
his hold.

Geographical distribution. From Scandinavia to the British shores and
Mediterranean, through the Atlantic, Indian, and North Pacific Oceans, being
most abundant in their tropical portions. Also the fresh waters of the United
States.

Some ascend fresh water rivers, as the S. coitor, H. B., in India : while others
as S. Bichardsonii, C. V. reside entirely in Lake Huron.

1. Scisena aquila, Plate L.

2kiVa, Aristot. Hist. Anim. viii, c. 19.

Latus, Rondel, v, c. 10, p. 135, c. fig. ; Gesner, ed. 1598, f. 29, c. fig. Umbra,
Salvian. fol. 105a; Belon. pp. 117, 119. Sciama sive Umbra, Jonston, De Pise,
lib. i, t. ii, c. 1, art. 13, p. 51, t. xv, f. 9. Umbra Bondeletii, Will. p. 299, t. S 19.
Maigre, Duharnel, Peches, ii, sect, vi, p. 137, pi. i, f. 3.

Labrus hololepidotus, Lacep. iii, p. 517, pi. xxi, f. 2.

Scicena umbra, Lacep. iv, p. 314; Cuv. Mem. Mus. i, p. 1 and Regne Anim.

Gheilodipterus aquila, Lacep. v, p. 685.

Perca vanloo, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 298, t. ix, f. 30.

Sciaina aquila, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 411 ; Cuv. and Val. v, p. 28, pi. c;
Neill, Edin. New. Phil. Journ., April, 1826, p. 135; Elem. Brit. Anim. p. 213 ;
Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 40, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 200 ; Tarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Eel. 1), i, p. 90, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 104 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 104; Nilss. Skan.
Fauna, p. 756 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. 111. Poissons ; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 352 ;
Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 90 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 16; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 291, and Mus. Godef. ix, p. 105; Schlegel, De Dieren Neder. p. 21,
pi. ii, f. 3; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 38; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan.
Mar. p. 12 ; Giglioli, Cat, Pesc. Ital. 1880, p. 24 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 398.

sci^enid^e. 151

Scicena hololepidota, Cuv. and Val. v, p. 53 ; Quoy and Gaim. Voy. Astrol.
Poiss. p. 697, pi. xii, f. 1.

Scicena Capensis, Smith, 111. S. African Fishes, pi. xv.

Scicena Antarctica, Castelnau, Pro. Zoo. Soc. Yic. 1872, p. 100.

Scicena, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 54, pi. lxxvi.

B. vii, D. 9-10/^^, P. 17, V. 1/5, A f, C. 15, L. 1. 52-55, L. tr. 8-9/17-19,
Vert. 11-13, Coec. pyl. 12.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 6j, height of body 4j to 5 in the total length.
Eye Diameter, 5| to 6 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 2/3 to 1 diameter apart. Snout rather pointed ; the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the last third of the eye. Preopercle serrated along its
posterior edge and with denticulations at the angle, these become obsolete with
age. Two flattened opercular spines. Teeth A row of somewhat distantly
placed, slightly curved, and pointed ones in the jaws, strongest in the upper ;
there are also some finer teeth. None on the vomer, palatine bones, or tongue.
Fins spines of the first dorsal weak, the third and fourth the longest, and equal
to about half of the height of the body below them; this fin is united at its base
with the second dorsal, which is of less height than the first, and continued
nearly to the root of the tail. Anal commences below the fifth or sixth ray of
the second dorsal, its first spine short, the second longer but scarcely above half
the height of the first ray. Pectoral nearly two-thirds as long as the head.
Ventral of about the same length. Caudal truncated or rounded. Scales
ctenoid, and in oblique rows. Lateral-line with a very gentle curve from its origin
to above the anal fin, where it becomes straight and is continued along the caudal
fin to its extremity : the tubes are branched posteriorly. Air-bladder large, and
possessing many lateral branching processes. Colours grayish, darkest along
the back, the occiput being of a greenish tinge, with piirple and golden reflections,
and a gray blotch on the opercle : the back with a coppery tinge becoming silvery
white along the sides and beneath. The colours are siibject to considerable varia-
tions, due to seasons as well as to the character of the water they inhabit. The
fins, excluding the caudal, are usually of a red colour, having the outer edge of
the second dorsal, pectoral, anal, and caudal gray.

Names. Rondelet considered Goracinus to be a small, and Latus a large example
of this fish among the Roman fishmongers. The Pels Rei, or Royal fish, of
Languedoc Lacepede believed identical with Latus. Shade-fish. Maigre, French,
not signifying thin, but derived from the whiteness and bloodless appearance of
the flesh, the orthography meagre being therefore erroneous. The Dutch are
said to perceive an image or representation of the Virgin on each scale. Omber-
visch, and Onzelieve vronwvisch, Dutch.

Habits. Bold and fearless, of great strength, gregarious, and fond of
changing its locality. Uttering sounds below the water which have been com-
pared to bellowing, buzzing, purring, and whistling this, some fishermen have
imagined, is only effected by the males during the breeding season. It has been
recorded that listening to this sound, shoals or troops of them have been successfully
netted. It has also been stated that they can be heard when at twenty fathoms
depth. Couch says that for a few years in succession, from 1849, they attended
on the boats which were engaged on the pilchard fishery on the south coast of
Cornwall ; and although they never attempted to take fishes from the floating nets,
the eager Scicena would dart greedily after any that fell out of them, or were
thrown to it, and in doing so its appetite could scarcely be satisfied. Attempts to
catch them were unsuccessful, as they snapped the best lines. Mr. D'Urban found
in the stomach of one, on October 3, 1872, six monk-fish, each about 1 foot long ;
six small pilchards, and a small sole.

Means of capture. Netting and trammels.

Breeding. In the Mediterranean the largest numbers of young of this fish are
found on the southern side, where they generally swim in small shoals.

As food. Formerly much prized in Rome, and even now it is esteemed on
some parts of the continent, where the head and shoulders are deemed the most
tempting portions. In the East I have tried fishes of this genus frequently, but

152 ACANTHOPTERGYII.

always found them insipid and anything hut firm. Yarrell remarks that stewing 1
is better for this fish than boiling, as they are rather dry and tasteless.

Diseases. Mr. D ' Urban fonnd adhering to the scales of one several specimens
of the Holibnt leech, Entobdella hippoglossi.

Uses. The "otoliths," or ear stones, are comparatively large in Sciamoids, and
were formerly deemed very efficacious against colic, provided they had been
received as gifts, as purchased ones were believed to lose their virtue. They were
mounted in gold and worn suspended round the neck. The Roman fishermen
were accustomed to present the head, as a species of tribute to the three
magistrates of Rome who acted as conservators of the city.

Habitat. Nilsson has recorded its occurrence on the coast of Sweden, in
December, 1852, from there it extends to the British Isles, becoming somewhat rare
in the Bay of Biscay, but found through the Mediterranean, being common in the
Gulf of Gascogne from July until September, but much less frequent towards
Italy. It is also present in the Atlantic, round the Cape of Good Hope, and
south coast of Australia ; these Antartic examples have been named Scicena
antarctica by Castelnau.

One was captured in Zetland, in November, 1819, endeavouring to
escape from a seal (Neill), and a second in the Orkneys by Dr. Duguid
in 1852 (W. Baikie). It is often taken along the coasts of Cornwall and
Devonshire, mostly during the summer and autumn, and sometimes in
considerable numbers. Mr. Holdsworth obtained a fish which he considered
this species taken by a seine, at Start Bay, on the south coast of Devonshire
in August, 1825 (Pro. Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 112) ; it is probable that the fish
weighing 100 lb., taken in the Exe, was also this species (Linn. Trans, xvi, p. 751,
Nov. 20th. 1827) and not Umbrina cirrhosa which the Exe example has been
supposed to represent in the British Fauna. The chief difficulty is that in the
minute book of the Linnean Society it is stated that Mr. Cresswell's fish from the
Exe proved to be identical with Sciama cirrhosa of Linnaeus. But as this form
only attains 30 or 40 lb. weight in the Mediterranean, and no other instance
besides this single 100 lb. fish has been recorded, the drawing to which the
name w 7 as given was probably untrustworthy. Parnell (1838) mentions one
3^ feet long from the Firth of Forth. In 1841 one was captured at Sherringham,
and is now in the Norwich Museum ; another in the autumn of 1843, was taken
off Mevagissey, it was 6 feet long and of about 400 lb. weight (R. Couch) ; and in
October in the same year one off Margate (Zool., p. 85). In the winter of 1844,
another off Fowey. In 1847 a fine one off Craster (Proc. Berwick. Nat. Club, 1867,
p. 343) : December 24, 1849, one 5 feet long, from between Redcar and the Tees'
mouth (Zool. viii., 1850) : and another in August from Dartmouth. At the end of
October, 1850, one upwards of 100 lb. was taken off Brixham (Times, Nov. 4th,
1850) : in 1863 one over 5 feet long by trawlers, in Carmarthen Bay, it weighed
641b., D. 8/28, A. 8 (Williams, Zool., p. 8771) ; the same year Cornish recorded
another from Penzance. July 21st, 1866, Buckland mentions the head of one sent
him by Mr. Charles, and he recorded five others that year ; in 1867, one 3 feet
long was taken at Hastings : in 1868, on November 22nd, after a rough night, one
was driven ashore opposite the Marine Parade at Brighton, it weighed about
70 lb. (Brighton Herald, Nov. 28th) : while on August 30th of the same year,
another, rather over 5 feet long, and weighing 84 lb., came ashore at Thorpe near
Aldborough (Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk). October 3rd, 1872, one was taken at
Teignmouth in a pilchard seine, it was 5 feet long, and weighed 741b. (W.
D'Urban) ; and in August 30th, 1880, the same author recorded another captured
at Beer, off the Devonshire coast (Zool. 1880, p. 449).

In Ireland, according toDr. Harvey (Cork Fauna), one 6 feet 4 inches in length
was captured August 1st, 1840, while basking on the surface of the water opposite
the passage into the harbour of Cork.

The specimen figured is about 21-J- inches in length, it was captured June
20th, 1881, in a trammel at Mevagissey and kindly sent me by Mr. Dunn. It
attains to at least 6 feet.

TRICHIURLTLE. 153

Fifth group Acanthopterygii Triehiuriformes.

Body elongated, band-like, and strongly compressed. Cleft of mouth deep.
Several strong and conical teeth in the jaws or palate. Dorsal and anal fins
many rayed, sometimes ending in Unlets. Caudal fin, when present, forked.

Although the flattened snake-like fishes are mostly found residing at great
depths, this is not invariably the case : thus, in tropical climates, the Trichiurus
usually frequents the littoral regions at very inconsiderable depths, although it
may also be seen as a surface fish some distance from land. It is so also in China,
" off the Regent's-sword, or Lian-tie-Shan promontory, great numbers of strange-
looking crafts in the form of rude rafts, put boldly to sea, long* black nets coiled
up snugly in the middle, four men working at huge sculls, and the others smoking
and chatting. The net is paid out in a circle, and when the end is come to, the
net is turned back and hauled in, securing frequently large numbers of the silvery
hair-tail." (A. Adams, Zool. 1861, p. 7517.)

Family, XVI TRICHIURID.E, (SwainsonJ Giuither.

Lepidopodince, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranehiae present. Body elongated and
strongly compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth
in jaws or palate, several being strong and conical. Dorsal and anal fins many
rayed, sometimes ending in finlets : ventrals, when present, thoracic, sometimes
rudimentary : caudal present or absent. Scales, when present, rudimentary. No
prominent papilla behind the vent. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages
few or many.

Genus I. Trichiurus, Linnaeus.

Encheh/opus, Klein ; Lepturus (Artedi), Gill ; and Eupleurogrammus, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body very elongated, strongly
compressed, ribbon- shaped, tapering to a finless point at the tail. Cleft of mouth
deep. Teeth in jaws and palatines, those in the premaxillaries being arched and very
strong, while the lateral ones are lancet-shaped; none on the vomer. A single long
dorsal fin, extending the entire length of the bach: ventrals, when present, in the form
of a pair of scales or spines : anal spines minute, sometimes concealed beneath the shin.
Scales absent. Air-bladder p resent . Pyloric appendages numerous.

Although ventral fins merely exist in one or more of these species in the form
of spines or scales, it is suggested by Liitken as not improbable that they are
always present in the very young. This is a littoral genus which is sometimes
taken out at sea. Cantor observed that Trichiurus haumela and T. savala give at
certain seasons, like other fishes, a vivid phosphorescent light.

As food these fishes are held in various estimation at different places.
Thus along the coast of Beloochistan, where salt is cheap, no one will touch
them ; along the coast of India, where the onerous salt tax has ruined the fish-
curers' trade, they are more valued, because their bodies being attenuated they
can be dried in the sun. Europeans have spoken well of them as articles of diet.

Geographical distribution. Tropical seas extending into those of temperate
regions. Stragglers occur along the British coasts.

154 ACANTHOPTERGYII.

1. Trichiurus lepturus, Plate LI., Fig. 1.

Seba 33, 1 : Lepturus, Artedi, Spec. p. Ill ; Linn. Mus. Ad. Fried, i, p. 76,
pi. xxvi, f. 2. Gymnogaster, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 53 ; Gronov., Mus. Icli., i,
p. 17 ; Brown, Jamaica, p. 444, t. xlv, f. 4. Unchelyopus, Klein, MSS. iv, p. 52,
pi. xii, f . 7.

Trichiurus lepturus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 429 ; Hoy, Trans. Linn. Soc. xi, p.
210 (? synon.); Bloch, t. 158; Gmel. Linn. p. 1141; Bl. Schn., p. 517; Flem.
Brit. An., p. 204; Cnv. and Val. viii, p. 237; Jenyns, Man. p. 372; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish (Ed. 1) i, p. 182, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 204 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 275 ; Swainson, Fishes
ii, p. 254 ; Storer, Boston Journ. iv, p. 181 ; Castelnau, Anirn. Amer. Sud., p. 24 ;
De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, p. 109, pi. xii, f. 35; Guichen. in Ramon de
la Sagra, Hist. Cuba, p. 105 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 33 ; Gunther, Catal. ii,
p. 346 , Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 205 : Andrews, Proc. Roy. Dublin
Soc. vi, p. 35 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port., 1867, p. 102 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
ii, p. 547.

Trichiurus argenteus, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 90, pi. xii ; Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and
Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 364.

Hair-tail, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 61, pi. lxxviii.
Lepturus argenteus, Gill, I.e. 1863, p. 226.

B. vii, D. 135-136, P. 11, Ccec. pyl. 24, Vert. 39/120.

Length of head 9 to 10, height of body 16 to 17 in the total length. Eye
diameter 6 in the length of the head, and situated in its anterior half, 2 diameters
from the end of the snout and 1 diameter apart : interorbital space nearly flat.
Lower jaw the longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath
the middle of the eye. The height of the body commences to diminish at about
the centre of its total length, ending in a slender tail. Teeth about 15 in a
single row in either jaw, and two pairs of strong canines with barbed extremities
in the premaxillaries : no teeth on the vomer or tongue, but fine ones on the
palatines. Fins the dorsal commences above the anterior border of the opercle,
and is continued, but in greatly-decreasing height, to within a moderate distance
of the caudal extremity. Pectoral short. Ventrals, anal, and caudal absent.
Lateral-line descends behind the pectoral fin until it reaches the lower third of
the height of the body. Anus situated at about 1/3 the length of the fish, behind
it spiny points commence. Colours of a beautiful silvery, which exists in a
fine and deciduous membrane, that is easily rubbed off.

It is remarkable that the first reputed record of this fish off the British coast
came from Mr. Hoy, who described two fishes under this name in the " Tran-
sactions of the Linnean Society." One appears to have been Regalecus Banhsii,
while it is doubtful to what genus the other, taken in 1810, is to be referred unless
to Lepidopus, as a caudal fin is alluded to ; also it was nearly 4 feet in length.
As Fleming, Yarrell, Jenyns, and White admitted this species solely owing to
Hoy's description, it seems possible that up to the time that Couch first described
a British example of Trichiurus lepturtis the species had not been recorded as
captured in British waters.

Names. The hair-tail or silvery hair-tail, blade fish, all of which designations
refer to its external shape or colour.

Ha bits. Although generally a shore fish, it is frequently found far out to sea,
as already mentioned. The young in the tropics are also sometimes captured at
the mouths of rivers. One upwards of 2 feet long was taken in 1876 in St.
Germain's river in Cornwall. The most frequent time of the year the hair-tail
shows itself is during the winter months. They are said occasionally to leap out
of the water into boats.

As food. Russell, in his Fishes of Vizagapatam, observes that in his time the
European soldiers on the Coromandel coast esteemed these fishes ; and Jei'don
remarks that they afford very delicate eating when fresh, though never brought
to the table of Europeans at Madras.

TRICHIURID^E. 155

Habitat. The Atlantic Ocean, being found on the east coast of North America
from Cape Cod to Florida, and the West Indies. Wanderers have been taken off
the British and Irish, and more rarely off the French coasts.

Conch figures the first authentic British specimen of this fish ; it was 2 feet
3 inches long, and was thrown on shore off Whitesands Bay, near Land's End, in
Cornwall, in April, 1853. Mr. Dunn observes that they were common in the
winter months from 1865 to 1875, but scarce both before and since that period.
Mr. Couch before bis death had many specimens. In April, 1867, one 2 'jfeet
9 inches long was taken in a mackerel-boat in Mount's Bay (Zool. 1867, p. 793).
December 3rd, 1870, Mr. Cornish recorded one 2 feet 5 inches long taken in
Mount's Bay, and alludes to another captured a fortnight previously (Zool. 1871,
p. 2444), also on December 6th one 2|- feet long, another subsequently, and one in
January, 1871 (1. c, p. 2549). On November 29th a specimen was taken in a
herring-net four miles from Looe, and Mr. Laughran obtained three more from
the same place and one from Plymouth, all captured within a few days of each
other (S. Clogg, Zool. p. 2445). In February, 1871, a "hair-tail" was taken in
Devonshire and another in Cornwall (T. Gatcombe, Zool. p. 2529). November,
1871, one 2|- feet long was found dead in Mount's Bay (Cornish, Zool. 1872, p.
2908) and on December 10th another, almost as long, at Swanage, in Dorsetshire
(Colson, Hardw. Sc. Gossip, 1872, p. 17). In the same publication an example is
recorded as taken on January 4th, 1872, at Helford Harbour, on the S.W. coast.
On February 1st Mr. Cornish states one was taken in Whitesands Bay, near Land's
End (Zool. 1872, p. 3127). Mr. Gatcombe in 1876 recorded one taken January
28th 2 feet 5 inches long from the St. Germain's River, Cornwall, and another
2 feet 8 inches long on January 29 from Homoaze, near Plymouth (Zool. 1876,
pp. 4806, 4887).

Andrews records this fish from the Irish coast, while two were captured there
in February, 1871, and during the earlier months of 1872 five specimens were
taken in Dingle and Tralee Bays, Kerry, S.W. of Ireland (Hardw. Sc. Goss.
p. 113).

^: ; : feS

HEAD OF UMBKINA CIRRIIOSA.

156 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II. Lepidopus, Gouan.

Vandellius, Shaw. Scarcina, Rafinesque. Zipotheca, Montagu.

Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranchice present. Body elongated and
strongly compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Eyes lateral and rather large. Teeth in
the jaws and palatine bones, some in the premaxillaries and mandibles being enlarged
and barbed. A single long dorsal fin extending from the occiput along almost the
entire length of the bach. Caudal distinct and forked. Ventrals in the form of a
pair of scales. Pectoral with the lower rays the longest. Anal spines numerous, and
cuncealed beneath the shin, the last few enlarged, connected by a membrome, and
forming a fin which is continued to opposite the end of the dorsal. Scales abseid.
Lateral-line median. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages many.

The genus obtained the designation of Lepidopus, or " scaly-foot," owing to the
ventral fins being replaced by a pair of scales.

Geographical distribution. This abyssal form exists in the Mediterranean, also
in the Atlantic from the British shores as far as the Cape of Good Hope, as well
as along the coasts of New Zealand and Tasmania. A species, L. tenuis, from
Japan has likewise been described.

1. Lepidopus caudatus, Plate LI, fig. 2.

Lepidojms, Gouan, Hist. Poiss. p. 185, pi. 1, f . 4 ; Bowdich, Exc. p. 10, f. 1 :
Four-toothed Scabbard-Fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 2, 1812), iii, p. 210.

Lepidopus argenteus, Bonn. Ency. Ich. 1788, p. 58, pi. Ixxxvii, fig. 364 (not
Linn.). Nardo, J. Phys. Pav. vii, p. 227 ; Moreau, Poiss. Erance. ii, p. 544, c. fig.

Trichiurus caudatus, Euphr. Stockh. K. Vet. Acad. Nya. Handl. 1788, ix. p. 48,
t. ix, f. 2 ; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 607.

Lepidopus Gouani, Bl. Schn. p. 239, t. liii, f. 2.

Lepidopus Gouanianus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 151, and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 290.

Trichiurus gladius, Holten, Kjobenh. Skr. Af. Nat. Selsk. 1802, v. p. 23, t. ii, f. 1.

Vandellius Lusitanicus, Shaw, Gen. Zool. 1803, iv. p. 199.

Lepidopus Lusitanicus, Leach, Zool. Misc. ii, p. 7, pi. lxii.

Ziphotheca tetradens, Montagu, Wern. Mem. i, pp 82.623, t. ii and iii, and ii, p. 432.

? Trichiurus lepturus, Hoy, Journal Linn. Soc. xi, p. 210.

Scarcina argyrea, Rafin. Caratt, p. 20, t. vii, f. 1.

Lepidopus Peronii, Risso, Ich. Nice. p. 148, t. v, f. 18, and Eur. Merid. iii,
p. 291.

Lepidopus argyreus, Cuv. Regne Anim. pi. lxvii ; Cuv . and Val. viii, p. 223,
pi. ccxxiii; Jenyns, Manual, p, 371 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Ed. 1) i, p. 176, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) i, p. 198, (Eel. 3) ii, p. 269 ; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 181 ; Guichen.
Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 59 ; Cocks, Roy. Cornw. Pol. Soc. 1869, p. d8 ; Ball, Dublin,
N. H. Rev. ii, p. 45.

Lepidopus ensiformis, Bonap. Catal. No. 710 ; Swainson, Fish, ii, p. 254.

Lepidopus tetradens, Flem. Brit. An. p. 205.

Lepidopus caudatus, White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p, 32 ; Giinther, Catal. ii. p.
345 ; Gill, Pro. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 227 ; Robson, Tr. N. Z. Inst, viii, p.
218; Allport, Pr. Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1875, p. 86; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1867, p. 101 ; Giglioli, Cat, Pesci Ital. p. 24.

Scabbard fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 59, pi. lxxvii.

B. viii, D. 100-105, A. 18-25, C. 16-18, Ccec. pyl. 23, Vert. 41/71.

Length of head 7, of caudal fin 21 to 24, height of body 15.^- to 18 in the total
length. Eye circular, diameter 5 to 5| in the length of the head, 2} diameters
from the end of the snout. Lower jaw prominent, the maxilla reaches to beneath
the front edge of the eye. Some smooth ridges exist along the upper surface of
the head. Teeth jaws furnished with a single row of about 20 to 22 small and
compressed teeth, internal to which there are anteriorly in the upper jaw, 2 or 3
large, with as a rule, barbed fangs, and another in the lower jaw ; a few fine ones
on the palatines ; tongue smooth. Fins the dorsal commences over the posterior
half of the operclc, and is continued along the back almost as far as the base of the

TRICHIURID^E. 157

caudal fin, it is of much the same height throughout, being nowhei'e more than 1/3
of that of the body, its rays are simple, unarticulated, and but little flexible. Pec-
toral situated in the lower third of the depth of the body, its lower rays the longest,
and equal to half the length of the head. Ventral in the form of a pair of scales
situated below the middle of the pectoral. Anal fin in the form of minute spines
more or less visible, and which become distinct rays in the last portion of its
extent, but do not extend so far as the base of the caudal fin, the latter being
deeply forked. Only the rays of the pectoral and caudal fin are branched.
Lateral-line at first forms a slight arch reaching the middle of the body just
beyond the middle of the pectoral fin and is so continued to the centre of the base
of the caudal. Anus situated at about the centre of the length of the body and
having a small movable scale a little distance behind it. Colours sides and
abdomen like burnished silver ; fins of a light gray dashed with yellow.

Varieties. Risso considered that a second form existed with a larger head, 42
rays in the anal fin and a black spot at the anterior portion of the dorsal which
had 100 rays, the adults do not exceed 15 inches in length ; that it approaches
the shore in January and March, while its flesh is soft and but little esteemed.
Rafinesque also remarks on a smaller species as existing in Sicily, and which he
terms Scarcina punctata.

Bonnaterre while figuring Lepidnpus argenteus, Linn., refers in the text to
Lepturus argenteus, Linn. Mus. Ad. Frid. 1754, p. 76, pi. xxvi, fig. 2, which is a
Trichiurus.

Names. Scabbard fish ; scale-foot. Jarretiere, French.

Habits. Montagu's first specimen was said to have been seen swimming with
great velocity, its head being above the surface of the water ; it was killed by a
blow from an oar. Other observers have confirmed the statement as to its rapidity
of movement. Valenciennes remarked that in April and May it approaches the
shores, but that it generally lives at great depths and is not gregarious, probably
only leaving its usual habitat under some exceptional circumstance. It appears to
be very voracious, and Dr. Moreau took six fishes from the stomach of one of small
size, and it could contain no more, the last one being still at the commencement of
the oesophagus.

It is termed Hihu or " Frost-fish " in New Zealand, where Mr. Robson states
that it comes on shore deliberately, and not in pursuit of prey or to rid itself of a
parasite.

Breeding. In the spring in the Mediterranean.

Diseases. It appears to be much tormented by internal parasites.

Habitat. This fish appears to have been first described by Professor Goiian,
of Montpellier, in 1770. It is found through the seas of Central and Eastern
Europe, not being uncommon in certain parts of the Mediterranean, as Nice, and
along the east coast of Sicily, from Messina to the Gulf of Catania, where it
is taken from May until September. Wanderers also have occurred along the
south coast of Great Britain, while it becomes more frequent through the warmer
portions of the Atlantic, and though in diminished numbers, is found so far as the
Cape of Good Hope. It has been recorded from New Zealand and Tasmania.

The first British specimen was captured in the summer of 1787 at Dawlish,
and notes and drawings of it were taken by Mr. T. Wallcott. The next
was 5f feet long, obtained June 4th, 1808, in Salcombe Harbour, Devonshire.
Another at Shapton Bay in February, 1810, and is still in the British
Museum, being only 10 inches in length, it gave rise to the supposi-
tion that it had been bred not far off. Two were taken in Mount's Bay,
one of which was sent to the Linnean Society, the other to the Penzance
Natural History Society. Mr. Lukis informed Yarrell of one taken in Guernsey
early in 1818. Cocks, 1. c, remarks upon a specimen 53| inches long taken at
Gwyllyn Vase, being in the possession of Dr. Bullmore in 1869. Couch stated
that he possessed records of four taken in Cornwall, one of which he figured ;
it was 64 inches long, and was captured twenty miles from land.

One recorded from Ireland (Uuuch) may refer to a specimen of TricMurus (see
p. 155). Ball recorded one from Dublin Bay. It attains to 6 feet in length. The
one figured is from a specimen in the British Museum.

158 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Sixth Group Acantkopterygii Gobiiformes.

No osseous articulation between the suborbital ring of bones and the angle
of the preopercle. A single rayed dorsal fin sometimes divided into two parts,
the anterior portion of which is composed of spines, which are fewer in number
than the rays : soft dorsal and anal generally of equal extent. Ventrals, when
present, thoracic or jugular and composed of one spine, and four or five rays. A
prominent anal papilla.

Family, XVII GOBIIDJE, Cuvier.

Pseudobranchise present, but sometimes rudimentary. Gill openings varying
from extremely narrow to wide, the gill-membranes attached to the isthmus: four
gills. Body generally elongated. Eyes lateral, occasionally prominent, and mostly
without free orbital margins, the skin being continued directly over their surface.
No osseous articulation between the suborbital ring of bones and the angle of the
preopercle. Teeth of varying characters, mostly small : canines present or absent.
A single rayed dorsal fin sometimes divided into two portions, the spines flexible
and less in number than the rays : anal similar to the soft dorsal. Ventrals some-
times united so as to form a disc, or else they arise close together. Scales and
lateral line present or absent. Air-bladder mostly absent.* Pyloric appendages,
when present, few.

This family has been much subdivided by different authors, owing to the great
variations observable among the species composing it. An account, however, of
these appears hardly necessary in a work relating solely to the British forms.
The niajoiity are littoral fishes, the species composing which often appear to have
an extensive range.

The number of British genera which compose the family may be restricted to
three.

1. Gobius. Two dorsal fins: teeth in the upper jaw in several rows of pointed
ones : body scaled.

2. Aphia. Two dorsal fins : teeth in the upper jaw in a single series of long
ones : posterior to which are two groups of canines : body scaled.

3. Grystallogobius. Two dorsal fins : teeth conical and fixed : body scaleless.

Genus I GoBius,f Artecli.

Cryptocentrus, Ehr. : Awaous, Val. : Choeturicldhys, Rich. : Gephalogobius,
Platygobius, Br achy gobius, Hypogymnogobius, Callogobms, Stenogobius, Actino-
gobius, Hemigobius, Ctenogobius, Gentrogobius, Acentro gobius, Porogobius, Ambly-
gobius, Odontogobius, Pargobius, Zonogobius, Stigmatogobius, Oxyurichthys, Ambly-
chmturichthys, Parachceturichthys, Bleeker : Gallichthys, Cope : Glossogobius,
Pomatoschistus, Acant ho gobius, Pucyclogobius, Lepidogobius, Pluuogobius, Synecho-
gobius, Gobionellus, Gill : GiUia, Giinther : Gobiopsis, Cyclogobius, Oplopomus,
Steind. ; Ghonephorus, Samaragdus, Poey : Gobiichthys, Klunz.

* Urinary bladder generally large.

f For the definitions of each of the various named subdivisions of the genus Gobius see my
Fishes of India, p. 282.

GOBIID^E. 159

Branchiostegals five :* pseudobranchice present. Gill-openings of moderate width.
Body low and elongated. Opercles unarmed. Simple teeth in one or more rows in
the upper, and two or more in the lower jaw : canines sometimes present. Anterior
portion of the dorsal fin with from five to six flexible spines, the soft portion of the fin
being more developed than the spinous, and of the same character as the anal :
ventrals united, forming a disc attached only by its base, each fin consisting of one
spine and three or four rays. Caudal rounded or wedge-shaped. Scales present, and
either cycloid or ctenoid. Lateral-line absent. Air-bladder, if present, mostly small.
Pyloric appendages as a ride absent.

Naturalists have described gobies as being very tenacious of life, a conclusion
not in accordance with my experience. E. J. S. observes of some kept in an
aquarium, that after he had had them some little time they began to breed, and
attached their eggs to the side of the glass, in the same kind of way in which
a caterpillar affixes its eggs to a leaf. These the male goby at once set to guard,
and it was very amusing to watch how fiercely he would attack any creature
coming near, puffing his cheeks out in a curious manner. He constantly attached
himself by his ventral fins close to the eggs or kept swimming near them.
Unfortunately none were hatched (Hardwicke, Science Gossip, 1865, p. 42). Mr.
A. Walker, of Chester, has kindly sent me the following interesting information.
" There is one species (? G. Buthensparri) that is common in the shallow gutters
of the Dee, whose habits are worth noting. It lays its eggs in the inside of an
empty valve of Mya arenaria, one end of which it then contrives to bury in the
sand, leaving the other end (in which the eggs are laid) sticking up. The goby
then places herself inside, with her head looking out, and thus keeps guard over her
eggs and protects them from the Crustacea, such as shrimps and Eurydice pulchra
(a small but voracious Isopod, extremely common in the Dee). If the shell is
turned over and the fish driven away, these Crustacea attack the ova at once, but
as soon as the parent is permitted, she returns, drives them away, and by burrow-
ing with her head under one end of the shell, soon gets it into its place again "
(MSS. March 2nd, 1881). It has been frequently asserted that gobies construct
nests wherein to deposit their eggs, and some of these statements have arisen after
seeing how the stickleback behaves : Dr. Ninni (Alti Soc. Pad. i, 1872, pp. 92-96),
gives a list of twelve species of fishes which breed in the Lagunes of Venice, and
observes that four species of gobies and the stickleback build nests.

The fishes comprising this genus have the form of the body variously modified,
some being much deeper than others. Occasionally the head is scaleless and the
body even partially so. Barbels or warts on the head, or an occipital crest may
be present or absent. The dentition is subject to considerable modifications,
canine teeth being present or absent, and when present being most commonly in
the form of a recurved one on the outer side of the enlarged lateral row in the
lower jaw : but variations may occur in specimens belonging to the same species.
In some the two dorsals are almost united at their bases, in others there exists an
interspace between them, but the form of the fins, the character of the spines,
the number of rays and the colours are subject to considerable variation. As
these fishes decompose rather readily, care has to be taken that the spirit in
which they are preserved is of sufficient strength.

It must be observed that a very great latitude exists both in the colours and
modes of marking of the European gobies which has given rise to some confusion
in the literature of the various species. Likewise, should they " die hard," their
gill-covers and head become distended, in which position they stiffen as has been
remarked upon under the head of the Serrani, p. 15.

Among the British Gobies are some doubtful species, and I must here point
out that although in the Catalogue of the British Museum, Volume i, page iv
of the preface, it is observed that " the collection contains many typical specimens,
as there has been embodied with it, besides other minor collections, * * *
The collection of the fishes of the Firth of Forth and Scottish rivers by Dr.
Parnell." This statement might occasion the belief that the entire collection of

* Dr. Moreau observes that Gobius quadrimaculatus lias only four.

160 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

tliat Ichthyologist had been obtained by the National Museum. At Edinburgh,
however, I was informed this was an error, and Dr. Traquair, F.R.S., showed
me some of Parnell's types. In the Wernerian Memoirs, Vol. vii, 1838, p. 498, is
the following resolution : " That the honorary premium of ten sovereigns or a
piece of plate of that value, should be awarded to Dr. Richard Parnell, upon a
selection from the dried specimens submitted to the Society on 30th April last,
and containing such species as are mentioned by the author as new to the
district, or which may be considered in any way doubtful, being presented to the
Museum of the Society."

In the proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh i, 1844-1850, p. 164, a
list of seventy-eight species received from Dr. Parnell is enumerated, among these
were the following gobies in spirit. Gobius niger, Yarrell : G. minutus, Yarrell :
G. unipunctatus, Parnell : G. bipunctatus, Yarrell and G. albus, Parnell. Con-
sequently all Parnell's types were not in the collection obtained for London.

Synopsis of British Species of Gobius.*

A. First dorsal fin with seven spines.

1. Gobius Ruthensparri, D. 7/ T V, A. TT yVr> L. 1. 35-40, f L. tr. 11. Dorsal
fins rather wide asunder. One black spot in the pectoral region, a second at
the base of the tail fin.

B. First dorsal fin with six spines.

2. Gobius paganellus, D. 6/ TT Iyg, A. xs-t* L>- ! 56-58, L. tr. 15-16. Dorsal
fins close together, the first being rather low. Nearly black, fins mostly with
light edges.

3. Gobius niger, D. 6 | -xt-tsi -A-. T0-T2"' L. 1. 39-41, L. tr. 12-13. Dorsal fins
close together. Light brown, variously marked with darker.

4. Gobius minutus, D. 6 | yo^T' &-. yg-iyy L- ! 60-70, L. tr. 12-14. Dorsal fins
rather wide asnnder. Sandy coloured, with darker markings and spots.

5. Gobius Parnelli, D. 6 | -9-y-o, A. yL_, L. tr. 40, L. tr. 11. Dorsal fins close
together. Slate coloured, with dark vertical bands : fins black, with white
horizontal lines. A black spot at end of first dorsal, another at base of caudal fin.

6. Gobius pictus, D. 6/10, A. 9, L. 1. 35-40, L. tr. 10-11. Dorsal fins close
together. Light, with darker irregular bands : dorsal fins with three or more rows
of large round spots.

7. Gohms quadrimaculatus, D. 6/g-_\o, A. g-.yo, L. 1. 37-40, L. tr. 7-8. Dorsal
fins close together : second spine of first dorsal frequently elongated.

A. First dorsal fin with seven spines.

1. Gobius Ruthensparri, Plate LII, fig. 1.

Gobius rtdhensparri, Euphr. Nya Handl. Stockh. 1786, p. 64, t. iii, f. 1 ; Retz.
Faun. Suec. p. 326; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 115; Fries, Wiegm.
Arch. 1840, p. 237 ; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 48 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 2) i,
P. 285 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 322 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. i, p. 399, c. fig. ; Nilss. Skand. Faun,
iv, p. 226 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 52 ; Gunther, Catal. iii, p. 76 ; Mcintosh,
Fish, St. Andrews, p. 174; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 58; Heinke, Arch. Nat. 1880,
p. 310 ; Moreau, Poissons France, ii, p. 232 ; Giglioli, Pesci Italiani, p. 29.

Gobius fiavescens, Fabr. Reise n. Norw. p. 322.

Gobius minutus, Nilss. Prod. p. 94.

* Dr. Gunther, Intr. Study of Fish, p. 486, includes Gobius auratus among the British
forms. In the Catal. Fish. Brit. Mus. iii, p. 11, he gives as the habitat of this fish, "coast of
Nice." A variety of G. niger he observes is "perhaps identical with G. auratus, Kisso." Couch's
fish I believe to be one of our common species. Thus unable to ascertain why G- auratus, unless
as a variety of G. niger, has been considered British, I have omitted it.

f By Lateral-line is meant the number of rows of scales between the head and the base of the
caudal tiu.

GOBIID^E. 101

Gobius niger, Donov. Brit. Fish. pi. civ. ; Fleming, Brit. Vert. p. 206.

Gobius bipunctatus, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 255 ; Jenyns, Manual,
p. 386 ; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 86, pi. xxix, and Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 246, pi. xxix; Johnston, Berwick. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 172; Mcintosh,
Fish. North Uist. P. R. S. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614 ; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 58 ;
Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 17.

Two-spotted goby, Conch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 162, pi. c, fig. 3.

Gobius biocellatus, or broad-finned goby. Couch, 1. c. p. 165, pi. ci, f. 1 (not
Cuv. and Val.).

Gobius pusillus, Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk, Fishes p. 12 (not Canestrini).

B. v, D. 7/T-oixr, P. 19, V. 1/5, A. l ro C. 15, L. 1. 34-40, L. tr. 11.

Length of head 4j, of caudal fin 5 to 5|, height of body 6 in the total length.
Eyes high up, separated by a very narrow interorbital space, diameter 3j in
the length of the head, 3/4 of a diameter from the end of the snout and also
apart. Head as high as wide : snont obtuse. Cleft of mouth oblique, commencing
opposite the upper third of the orbit, lower jaw prominent : the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the first third or middle of the orbit, no perceptible rows
of warts on the head. Teeth several rows of pointed ones in both jaws, the
outer row in the fore portion of the mandibles being considerably the largest and
slightly curved. Fins the dorsals placed rather far asunder, the extent of the
interspace being equal to nearly half the length of the base of the first dorsal,
the longest spines of which latter fin are nearly equal to the height of the body
below it, and also to the rays of the second dorsal : the length of the candal
pedicle equals that of the head so far as the hind edge of the preopercle. Pectoral,
without any of its upper rays being silk-like, reaches as far as to above the end
of the ventrals, which latter do not extend to so far as the anns. Caudal cut
almost square. Scales angular in their exposed portion and strongly ctenoid :
11 rows between the origins of the second dorsal and anal fins : anterior to the
first dorsal fin they are absent, while there are none on the cheeks or gill covers.
Colours body of a cinnamon colour, becoming light beneath : the darker tinge
of the back descending in a wavy or irregular manner on the sides. A black spot
on the side opposite the outer half of the pectoral fin, and a second at the base
of the caudal. Fins pale, with two rows of light coloured spots along either
dorsal, wavy vertical bands on the caudal, and a light edge having a darker base
along the anal. A dark band from the eye to the corner of the mouth.

The dark spot behind or above the middle of the pectoral fin is sometimes
absent, while it seems to be frequently lost in specimens which have been kept
long in spirit. Tarrell's variety of G. unipunctatus, with seven dorsal spines
(Ed. 3, page 239), was probably G. Buthensparri.

Mr. A. Roberts, curator of the Scarborough Museum, observed that the
female is fully one-third longer than the male, and has only one spot at the base
of the caudal fin, whereas the male has two. For several years he bred these fishes
in confinement, and thus possessed opportunities for watching them.

Couch considered his G. biocellatus to differ from G. Buthensparri, more
especially in the greater elevation of the second dorsal fin. Dr. Lowe, 1. c.
described his G. pusillus, which he has since ascertained has six or seven spines
in the first dorsal fin, and of which he has been so good as to send me a figure.

Name. Dotible- spotted goby, due to its colours.

Habits. Prefers rocky situations, and does not appear to frequent sandy
localities. According to Parnell, it keeps but a short distance from below the
surface of the water, apparently in a motionless position, assuming in this respect
much the habits of the stickleback : when approached, it gradually lowers itself
into the deep and soon disappears, by making short though rapid darts among
the fuci, which it delights to frequent. Dr. Lowe observes of G. pusillus, that
" when transferred to an aquarium, from the pool in which they were discovered,
they lived for a long time in quite fresh water if gradually accustomed to it,
but when suddenly placed in cold fresh water they were apparently asphyxiated,
all the fins becoming rigidly expanded. They took food readily from the hand,

11

162 ACANTH0PTERYGI1.

and would attach themselves to the sides of the glass in any position by means of
the ventral fins.

Breeding. Mr. Roberts, observed that when the female had deposited
her eggs in the shell of a barnacle, the male took possession of the deposit, and
was continually working his fins in and out of the shell and drove other fish
away. On the sixteenth day the yonng fish were hatched, but were destroyed
by the other fish in the vivarium.

Uses. Due to their small size, more as the food for other fishes or birds than
man. They are frequently taken from the stomach of the cod and haddock, and
Yarrell records one from the inside of a tern.

Habitat. Seas of Northern Europe excluding the Baltic, and not recorded
along the Mediterranean coast of France. Although it has been said by Nardo to
exist in the Adriatic, Canestrini and others have not obtained it there. It is
found off Norway and Denmark : is not infrequent in the Orkneys and Shetland
Isles, and extends round the coast of Great Britain, being very common in
suitable places : in Cornwall it is said to be rather rare, but becomes numerous
off the Channel Islands, and west coast of France.

In Ireland it is common on the north-east coast, especially along the shores of
Down, and is also abundant on the western coast, certainly as far as the Island
of Arran.

It attains to at least 2-| inches in length. The example figured, and for which I
am indebted to Mr. J. Carrington, f.l.s., was obtained in Guernsey with several
others.

B. First dorsal fin with six spines.

2. Gobius paganellus, Plate LII, fig. 2.

Faganellus Venetorum, Willugh. p. 207 ; Ray, p. 75. Gobms, sp. 2, Artedi,
Genera, p. 29 ; Hasselq. Reise nach Palasst. p. 373.

? Gobius melanio, Pallas, Zoo. iii, p. 157 ; Rathke, Faun, der Krym, p. 327 ;
Nord. Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 412, Poiss. pi. xi, fig. 1 ; Kessler, Bull.
Soc. Nat. Mosc. 1859, ii, p. 250.

Gobius bicolor, Brunn. Pise. Mass. p. 30, no. 41 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1197 ; Cuv.
and Val. xii, p. 19 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 228.

Gobius paganellus, Gmel. Linn. p. 1198 ; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 20; Giinther,
Catal. iii, p. 52; Andrews, Journ. Roy. Dublin Soc. v, 1860-70, p. 381; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 63.

Gobius niger, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 158 and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 280 ; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes, '(Ed. 2) i, p. 281 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 318 (in part) ; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. Ill ; Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 135, t. vii, f. 2.

Gobius punctipinnis, Canestrini, 1. c. p. 131, t. x, f. 1.

Gobius maderevs-is, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 55 (var.) ; Gunthei", Catal. iii, p. 57.

Gobius niger, var. Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 84 and Trans, iii, p. 10.

Paganellus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 157, pi. xcviii.

B. v, D. 6/^Te, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. ^l-^, C. 13, L. 1. 54-58, L. tr. 15-17.

Length of head 4 to 4^, of caudal fin 5| to 6, height of body 5f to 6 in the
total length. Eye rather prominent, diameter 1/4 of the length of the head,
about 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 1/3 to 1/2 a diameter apart. Head
depressed, broader that high : cheek swollen and during life no deep groove
extending from the base of the first dorsal fin to the occiput : cleft of mouth
oblique commencing opposite the upper third of the eye. Mouth rounded, jaws
of about the same length anteriorly, or the lower slightly the longer. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the first quarter of the eye : lips thick and with a fringed row
of barbel-like papilla?. Several rows of warts descending from the eye to the cheeks,
and more especially towards the angle of the mouth. Teeth pointed, no canines,
the outer row in either jaw considerably enlarged and somewhat curved,
especially in the upper jaw. Fins the dorsal fins placed close together, the
spines of the first weak, and from half to two-thirds the height of the body
beneath, but not so high as the rays of the second dorsal. The distance between

GOBIID^l. 163

the eye and the first dorsal fin is equal to that between the end of the snout and
the angle of the preopercle. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the snout :
its upper 6 or 7 rays silk- like. Ventrals short, extending 2/3 of the distance to the
vent. Caudal rounded. An anal papilla present. Scales except in the anterior
portion of the body, ctenoid, 15 to 17 rows between the origin of the second dorsal
and anal fins. Some scales on the upper portion of the opercle, the remainder of
the head scaleless, while superiorly some extend as far forward as the eyes : about
35 rows anterior to the base of the dorsal fin. Colours the body is nearly
black, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. The first dorsal fin is dark
with a light or orange outer edge, the lower two-thirds is mostly horizontally
banded, the lowest band terminating in a black spot behind the last spine. Second
dorsal and anal nearly black, with spots or blotches and a light or orange outer
edge. The other fins dark.

In one male example among several from Weymouth, collected by the late
Professor Rolleston, f.e.s., the colours are much lighter than described above
being more similar to what obtains in G. niger and agreeing with G. paganellus
C. V. The specimen is of a light brown or gray irregularly marked with darker,
and somewhat band-shaped descending bars on the posterior portion of the body.
Upper border of the first dorsal fin with an orange band, the rest of the fin
with irregular brownish horizontal bands : second dorsal spotted with brown or
light marks : pectoral with three or four band-like rows of spots : it, the caudal
and anal darkest externally. Ventral gray or gray with a light outer edge. A
small dark spot at the upper part of the base of the caudal fin : and a light spot
with a dark brown edge at the upper portion of the base of the pectoral fin.
This can scarcely be Moreau'sfish, with D. 6/^-5-3, A. T o-t"2> ^- ^ 44-48, L. ti*. 15.
This species is of a much stouter shape than G. niger

Habits. Does not appear to be so restricted to rocky localities as G. niger, but
its habits have still to be investigated. It is found under rocks at low tides in
Mounts Bay, Cornwall.

Breeding. In May or June.

Habitat. This species having been so mixed up with G. niger, it is difficult to
give an opinion respecting which the various authors allude to. It has been recorded
from Tory Island off Donegal and Galway (Thompson), also from Kenmare Bay
(Andrews, Journ. Roy. Dub. Soc. v, 1866-70, p. 381), Coi-k (Thompson), and
Clonakilty (Leach) in Ireland. Firth of Forth in Scotland, and especially along
the south coast of England to Mounts Bay, and St. Ives : the English Channel,
Bay of Biscay, and as far south as Madeira, also the Mediterranean.

The example figured, life size, is a male taken on the coast of Sussex; the
ventral fins are rather short in comparison with some other examples. The fish
attains to at least 4 inches in length.

3. Gobius niger, Plate LII, fig. 3.

Gobio niger, Rondel. 17, c. 17, p. 200 ; Gesner, p. 385 ; ? Schonov. p. 30 ;
Willughby, p. 206, t. N 12, f. 1 ; Ray, p. 76. Gobius, No. 1, Artedi, Genera,
p. 28. Black Goby, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 203, pi. xxxviii (Ed. 2)
iii, p. 288, pi. xlii ; Low, Fauna Orcadensis, p. 205.

Gobius niger, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 449 ; Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 326 ; Bloch,
t. xxxviii, f. 2, 3, 4, 5 ; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 232, pi. xxxiv, f . 2 ; Mull. Prod.
Zool. Dan. p. 44 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 94 ; Nilss. Prod. Zool. Suec. p. 93, and
Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 219 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 385 ; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1835, p. 80, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. Ill ; Ekstr. Fische Morko, p. 255 ;
Fries och Ekstrom, Skand. Fisk. p. 157, t. xxxvi ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1)
i, p. 251, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 281 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 318 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1837, i, p. 410 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 382, c. fig. ; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 9 ;
Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 81, pi. xxix, and Werri. Mem. vii, p. 240,
pi. xxix, f. 1 ; Fries, Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 237 ; Gimther, Catal. iii, p. 11 ;
Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 174; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 52; F. Heincke,
Arch. Nat. 1880, p. 306 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 16 ; Moreau, Poiss.
France, ii, p. 230 (L. tr. 15-16).

11 *

164 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gobius jozo, Bloch, t. cvii, f. 3.

Gobius fuliginosus, McCoy, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1841, vi, p. 403.
Gobius Britannicus, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 61, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 111.

? Gobius paganellus, Moreau, 1. c. ii, p. 225.

Hock Goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 153, pi. xcviii.

B. v, D. 6 | ^13, P. 18, V. 1/5, A. T ^ TJi C. 13, L. 1. 39-41, L. tr. 12-13.

Length of head 4| to 4tt, of caudal fin 5j to 5f , height of body 6 to 6 in the
total length. Eye prominent during life, diameter 3^ to 4 in the length of the
head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and separated by a very narrow
interspace. Head rather broader than high, snout obtuse. Cleft of mouth
moderately oblique, the jaws anteriorly being of nearly equal length, the maxilla
reaching to beneath the anterior edge of the orbit, a deep sulcus goes from the
base of the first dorsal fin to the occiput. Several short rows of warts descend
from the orbit over the opercles, there are likewise occasionally some similar but
horizontal rows, the most visible of which commences at the angle of the mouth.
Teeth several rows of pointed ones in either jaw, the outer of which are larger
and more curved than the remainder. Fins dorsal fins placed close together,
but their bases do not quite join, the spines of the first dorsal weak, elongated,
and as high as or higher than the body : second dorsal about as high as the
body, with its last ray divided to its base. Pectoral, usually a few of its upper
rays silk-like, it reaches to above or even behind the anal papilla. The ventrals
as a rule extend to the anus. Caudal wedge-shaped, its central rays being the
longest. Scales angular in their exposed portion and ctenoid : 12 or 13 rows
between the origins of the second dorsal and anal fins, anterior to the first
dorsal fin they are very small and rounded, but continued as far forward as
opposite the hind margin of the orbit. None on the cheeks or gill-covers.
Colours subject to considerable variation, being more or less of a dull
brown, having a wide but badly marked lateral band, and various blotches or
marblings. The fins in the young are light, covered with black spots, except
the ventrals which are unspotted : whereas in adults the spots become more
expanded, and light sinuous lines are frequently seen on the dorsals, while a
black spot usually exists between the two first dorsal spines. In adults the
ventrals may be either light coloured or dark with a light outer edge. A black
spot is frequently present at the upper portion of the base of the pectoral fin :
caudal barred in spots.

Varieties. Nilsson states that the pectoral and ventral fins are shorter in the
female than in the male, and the two dorsal fins somewhat farther asunder.
There is a British example in the National Museum having the outer row of
teeth in the upper jaw slightly enlarged, and which it has been suggested may
be identical with Gobius auratus, Risso. Moreau, gives the number of lateral
transverse rows of scales at 15 to 16.

Names. Sea-gudgeon and rock-fish, due to their living in rocky localities or
attaching themselves to rocks by means of their ventral fins, a faculty denied to
them by Fleming. Groundling, Cornish observes that in Cornwall it is some-
times termed Miller's thumb (see pp. 46, 48, ante). Cabot, French.

Habits. Resides in the neighbourhood of rocks, and Couch has observed that
having carried off its prey in its mouth, as does the shanny, it subsequently
struggles with it. This goby is occasionally found in rock pools situated above
the reach of any but very high tides. When detected, it darts away from its
place of concealment to some more secure retreat, while its colour aids in
preventing its being seen. Its food appears to be small fishes, crustaceans and
other animal substances, but ore-weed has also been taken from its stomach.
Couch mentions having taken a shanny 2 inches long from the inside of a
rock-goby which but little exceeded 6 inches in length. He likewise remarks that
this fish is equally capable of living in fresh or salt water, even if changed
suddenlv from one to the other.
Breeding. About June.

GOBIIM:. 165

As food. Said to be good by those who have tried it, but its size renders it of
little use for this purpose except for large fish and aquatic birds.

Habitat. From the Baltic (where it is of small size) and coasts of Scandinavia
to the Orkneys, Great Britain and Ireland, also the British Channel, as well as
the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe.

In the Orkneys it is pretty frequent according to some observers, but W. Baikio
says it is rare ; while at Weymouth and along the south and south-west coasts
of England it is abundant in tidal pools. In short, as observed by Jenyns,
it is found on many parts of the coast, but not in any abundance.

It attains to at least 9| inches in length, and is the largest of the British
species of this genus. The example figured was from "Weymouth.

4. Gobius minutus, Plate LII, fig. 4.

Aphya, Rondel, vii, c. 3, p. 210. Aphya colitis, Willughby, p. 207, pi. xii, f. 5.
Marsio, Ray, p. 76. Gobius, sp. Artedi, Genera, p. 29, and sp. 4 Synon. p. 47. Gobius,
No. 276, Gronov. Zooph. i, p. 81. Spotted Goby, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) hi, p. 215,
pi. xxxvii. (Ed. 2) hi, p. 187, t. xli. Duhamel, Peches, pt. ii, sec. 6, pi. 3, f. 3.

Gobius aphya, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 450 (pt.) ; Artedi, ed. Walb. iii, p. 192 ;
Bl. Schn. p. 70 ; Risso, Eur. Merid, iii, p. 281.

Gobius minutus, Gmel. Linn. p. 1199 ; Lacepede, ii, p. 571 ; Donovan, Brit.
Fish, ii, pi. xxxviii ; Turton, p. 94 ; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 206 ; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 258, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 288 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 325 ; Jenyns, Manual,
p. 386 ; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 82, pi. xxix and Wern. Mem. vii, p.
242, pi. xxix (female) ; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 29 ; Nilsson, Skan. Faun, iv, p. 222 ;
Ekst. Fische Morko, p. 260 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410 ;
Fries, Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 237 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 53 ; Thompson,
N. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 116 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fish, i, p. 407, c. fig : Guichen. Explor.
Alger. Poiss. p. 78 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 58 ; Mcintosh, Fish. N. Uist. Pro. R.
Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614 ; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 53 ; Winther, Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 17; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. 1880, p. 29; Canestrini, Arch. Zool. 1861,
p. 148, t. ix: Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 212.

Eleotris minuta, Bl. Schn. p. 66.

Gobius gracilis, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 387 (male) ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2)
i, p. 290, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 331 ; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 57 and
1. c. p. 116 ; White, Catal. p. 53.

Gobius unipunctatus, Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 83, pi. xxix (male) and
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 243, pi. xxix; Thompson, 1. c. p. 117.

Gobius reticulatus, McCoy, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, vi, p. 403.

Gobius rhodopterus and Echstromii, Giinther, Catal. iii, pp. 17, 57.

Yellow goby and one-spotted goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 159, 167, pi. c.
fig. 1 and pi. ci, fig. 3.

Gobius attenuates, or tail-spotted goby (young), Couch, 1. c. p. 166, pi. ci, fig. 2.

B. v, D. 6/^1^, P. 21, V. 6, A !, C. 11, L. 1. 60-70, L. tr. 12-14.

Length of head 4 to 4|, of caudal fin 6 to 6|, height of body 6| in female to 8,
in the total length. Eye diameter 4 to 4| in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1
diameter from the end of the snout and superiorly placed close together. The
eye in the female in some examples is a little nearer the end of the snout than is
that of the male. The greatest width of the head equals (or exceeds in large
specimens) its length behind the middle of the eyes, and is about equal to its
greatest height in smaller examples. Lower jaw slightly the longer. Cleft of
the mouth oblique, the upper jaw reaching to below the first third on even centre of
the orbit. Cheeks swollen. No warts on the head except in large examples, when
a horizontal row exists across the cheeks, from which several shorter ones
descend. Barbels absent. Teeth in several rows in both jaws, the front and an
outer series in the mandible being slightly larger than the remainder, none on the
palate nor on the tongue. Fins spines of first dorsal flexible but not prolonged,
they are lower than the height of the body : there is some considerable interspace,

166 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

about equal to two-thirds the length of the base of the first dorsal fin, between
the two dorsal fins. Second dorsal as high as the body in the male, but lower in
the female. None of the pectoral rays silk- like. The ventral extends to the vent.
Caudal somewhat rounded at its extremity. Female in some examples the head
is shorter and more square than in the male. Scales ctenoid, extending anteriorly
to above the posterior extremity of the preopercle. Those on the last portion of
the body a little larger than those anteriorly and more angular in their exposed
part. Colours in the male of a gingery-brown, with spots and even vertical
bands along the side of the body, and usually a dark mark at the base of the caudal
fin. Dorsal gray with three or four irregularly longitudinal bands of spots, and a
black spot edged with white between the fifth and sixth spines, also a black edging
to the membrane going from the sixth spine to the back. Second dorsal with
several rows of spots and dark outer edge : pectoral and ventral light coloured.
Anal stained externally with black. Caudal with a dark extremity, and five or six
irregularly vertical bands of spots. Female lighter than the male : fins light
coloured, the first dorsal with two or three horizontal bands and sometimes with
a small spot between the fifth and sixth spines. Second dorsal with yellow spots :
caudal fin banded with rusty spots. In some examples there are several vertical
narrow and usually dark bands on the body.

Varieties. Parnell considered those examples which possessed a black spot
between the fifth and sixth spines of the first dorsal fin, the second dorsal with
eleven rays and the tail fin even at its extremity belonged to his 0. unipunctatus,
whereas they would seem to be the typical G. minutus. He found this form
equally common with what he considered the true G. minutus, but which perhaps
is G. microps of Malm, specimens of which I received from Professor Lutken of
Copenhagen ; they are differentiated by having no scales on the throat where
G. minutus is densely covered by them. This well marked form does not appear
to attain the size of G. minutus, while its markings differ, consisting of a more or less
distinct rows of black blotches along the middle of the side and numerous dark
sinuous lines along the rows of scales in the upper half of the body. Respecting
G. reticulatus (c. v.) McCoy, Thompson observes that he has seen G. minutus
display the rosy tint in the first dorsal fin mentioned by McCoy, and other
characters so closely agreeing with the specimen he described that he could not
consider them different species.

Names. Freckled or spotted goby. Poleivig or pollybait, Thames local name.
One-spotted goby. Graigbysg brych, Welsh. Donlie at Aberdeen. Bourguette or
Bouhotte, French.

Habits. Delights in shallow and sandy bays, and often taken in shrimping
nets. It is very active and may be seen darting about in all directions. Templeton
observed that it lodges under large shells when the tide is out. As however it
is frequently found in the stomach of cod and other fish captured at considerable
depths, it would appear that it extends its range into deep water. Its food consists
of small Crustacea.

Breeding. In June.

Uses. Larger ones are sometimes employed as baits.

Means of capture. These little fishes are commonly taken in small nets by
shrimpers, in sandy bays around the coast, and also by dredging, extending as they
frequently do to some fathoms depth off the coast. They are numerous at the
mouth of the Thames, and commonly found among the whitebait brought to the
London market.

Habitat. From the Scandinavian peninsula to the Orkneys and Shetlands,
and along the shores of Great Britain and Ireland in appropriate localities : like-
wise in the English Channel and the Atlantic and Mediterranean shores of Europe.

Ireland, common in sandy bays from north to south, and Thompson took large
ones while dredging in water several fathoms deep, which is not uncommon else-
where during the summer months.

This fish attains to at least 3|- inches in length, at which size I obtained it
at Aberdeen. The example figured is one I took at Weston-super-Mare.

GOBILCvE. 107

5. Gobius Parnelli, Plate LII, fig. 5.

? Gobius gracilis, Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 85, pi. xxix, and Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 245, pi. xxix (not Jenyns nor Fries, &c).

? Gobius unipunctatus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 327.

Gobius auratus, Conch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 159, pi. c. f. i (not Basso) female.

Gobius minutus, Couch, 1. c. ii, p. 161, pi. c. f. 2 (not Gmol. Linn.).

Little and speckled goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 161, 170, pi. c. fig. 2
and cii, f. 1,

B. v, D. 6 | T _Vo, P. 19, V. 1/5, A. _Vo> C. 13, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 11.

Length of head 4J to 4^, of caudal fin h\ to 6, height of body 6 to 7 in the
total length. Eye diameter Z\ to 4 in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and nearly 1/4 of a diameter apart. Interorbital
space scaleless, and slightly concave from side to side. Snout somewhat obtuse.
Cleft of mouth commencing opposite the upper edge of the eye. Lower jaw the
longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front third
of the eye. Head rather broader than high. Cheeks swollen : neither warts
nor barbels on the head. Teeth those in the outer row in the lower jaw much
larger than the rest : none on vomer, palatines, or tongue. Fins spines of
first dorsal flexible and but little prolonged beyond the membrane, the two dorsals
of about equal height, and in the male equalling that of the body, but less in the
female, the interspace between the two fins is equal to two-thirds of the length
of the base of the first dorsal. Ventral fin reaches to the vent, while the pectoral
is somewhat shorter, and none of its upper rays are silk-like. Anal commences
beneath the second or third dorsal ray, and terminates opposite the end of that
fin. Caudal somewhat square. Scales ctenoid, commencing anteriorly just
behind the occiput : beneath the middle of the second dorsal their size almost
suddenly augments, and are thus continued to the end of the body in the last 15
rows. Colours of a leaden gray, with several vertical black bands on the body :
fins black, the dorsals with narrow white horizontal bands : caudal with dark
vertical bands.

Whether this is Parnell's fish may be questioned, his type at Edinburgh
having been mislaid. That this fish is not G. minutus is very evident, as the
scales widely differ in number as well as in character.

Habitat. The coasts of Great Britain.

Parnell observes G. gracilis is occasionally found in the Firth of Forth, the
Solway Firth, and in much greater plenty on the south coast of England. Lowe
observed G. rhodopterus, Gunther, on the Norfolk estuary, July, 1868, but which
may be this species.

It attains to at least 2j inches in length. The example, figured life-size, is
from Weston-super-Mare.

6. Gobius pictus, Plate LIII, fig. 1.

Gobius pictus, Malm, Forh. [Skand. Nat. 1863, p. 410 ; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 56; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 17.

Gobius minutus, (part) Gunther, Catal. iii, p. 58.
Gobius laticeps, Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 215, c. fig.

B. v, D. 6/10, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. 9, C. 13, L. 1. 35-40, L. tr. 10-11.

Length of head 3| to 4i, of caudal fin 41 to 4|, height of body 5| to 5f in
the total length. Eye diameter 3| to 4 in the length of the head, 3/4 of a
diameter from the end of the snout and nearly close together superiorly. Greatest
width of the head slightly less than its height, it may appear much more if the
fish dies in a spasm (G. laticeps) ; posteriorly the body becomes much compressed.
Lower jaw slightly the longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches
to beneath the front edge of the orbit. Teeth fine, the outer row in either jaw
being enlarged. Fins The interspace between the two dorsals slight, the length
of the longest spines in the first dorsal nearly equal to the longest rays in the

168 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

second. Pectoral large, and reaching to above the vent, none of its upper rays
silk-like. Ventral reaches the vent, its basal membrane well developed. Caudal
somewhat rounded. Scales somewhat angular in form and ctenoid, none in
front of dorsal fins. Colours body light brown, with irregular bands, and two
dark marks radiating from the lower edge of the eye. Fins light coloured, the
dorsals with three or more rows of spots, and a dark outer edge. Pectoral and
anal light coloured, the latter with a dark outer edge. Caudal with a dark
lower margin.

The example figured " when alive, was remarkable for the brilliant colours on
both dorsal fins, they are thus described in my diary, brilliant blue and green
reflections (in the form of spots) on both dorsal fins (as bright as the elytra of
the diamond beetle under a low power) when the sunlight falls upon them."
(A. Walker, Esq, MSS.)

Habitat. From the shores of Scandinavia and Denmark to Great Britain,
while it has likewise been captured in the Channel off the coast of France.

It appears to be a small species, the example figured life-size, having been
captured in Colwyn Bay, ofl' the Welsh coast, by A. Walker, Esq. of Chester, who
was good enough to send it to me. Professor Ltitken has likewise sent me a
similar example from Copenhagen.

7. Gobius quadrimaculatus, Plate LIII, fig. 2.

Gobuis quadrimaculatus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 44; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger.
p. 78 ; Canestr. Arch. Zool. t. i, p. 139, pi. viii, f. 1 ; Steind. Ich. Span, u, Port.
1868, p. 53 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 210 ; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 29.

Gobius Jeffrey sii, Giinther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, (3) xx, 1867, p. 290,
pi. v, fig. C. and (4) xiii, 1874, p. 139; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 54 (with elongated
dorsal spine).

B. iv-v, D. 6 | 7 _Vo, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. T J^ C. 13, L. 1. 37-40, L. tr. 7-8.

Length of head 4| to 4^-, of caudal fin 6| to 6f , height of body 6|- to 7 in
the total length. Eye diameter 3^ in the length of the head, 1 diameter from
the end of the snout and close together. Head slightly higher than wide, snout
somewhat pointed and slightly depressed : lower jaw a little the longer : the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye.
Fins the interspace between the two dorsal fins slight : the height of the first
dorsal may equal or even exceed that of the body, while in some individuals the
second spine is prolonged, extending when laid flat even to the end of the base
of the second dorsal : second dorsal as high as the body. Pectoral large, and
without any silk-like rays. Ventrals do not quite reach the vent. Anal with a
base of less extent than that of the second dorsal. Caudal rounded. Scales
ctenoid : none anterior to the dorsal fins. Colours yellowish gray, becoming
light beneath, and a dark mark descending from the eye : four or five dark spots
along the middle of the body in adults. Dorsal fins with three rows of spots.
Caudal and anal with dark edges.

Habitat. Deep sea off the Shetland Isles, but not recorded elsewhere from
the Atlantic : found off the Mediterranean shores of Europe. It is common at
Nice, and along the Italian coasts.

The example figured, life size, is one from the Shetland Isles, and in the
National collection.

GOBIID^E. 169

Genus II. Aphia, Risso.

Brachyochirus, Nardo ; Latrunculus, Gunther (preoccupied among Molluslcs) ;
Boreogobius, Gill.

Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchice present. Body elongated and compressed,
qill openings wide. Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth in jaws, those in the immature and
females minute, in the male long and pointed, with strong and curved canines in each
'jaw. Two dorsal fins, the first having five spines: ventrals united to form a disc
and not attached to the abdomen. Body transparent, covered with large and thin
deciduous scales. Air-bladder present.

Great difficulties have occurred in the discrimination of the genus, thus when
Dr. Gunther (Catal. iii, p. 80) instituted that of Latrunculus for the female and
young, he placed the male in Genus Gobiosoma, and likewise, though doubtfully,
Atherina minuta, Risso, as the immature of Atherina hepsetus. To Professor Collett
is due the credit of having found the spawning places of this fish in 1875, and
elucidated its true characters (Pro. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 319).*

This fish has been considered by Professor Collett as an example of an
annual vertebrate, but the fact must not be lost sight of that some fishes are
believed to die after breeding, as the common stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus,
whereas if it does not breed, it certainly will live several years in an aquarium.
It would be interesting to experimentalize with Aphia pellucida in an aquarium
and ascertain if the same rule appertains to it.

2i
1. Aphia pellucida, Plate LIII, fig. 3, (size -r-')

? Aphya cobitis, Rondel, p. 210.

Gobius pellucidus, Nardo, Giorn. Fis. Pavia, obser. &c. iii, 1824, p. 7 ; Kessl.
Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 1859, t. xxxii, No. 2, p. 260 ; Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii,
p. 171, pi. cii, f. 2.

Atherina minuta, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 340 ; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 437.

Aphia meridionalis, Risso, Enr. Merid. iii, p. 287.

Gobius albus, Parnell, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xiv, 1837, p. 137 ; Yarrell, Supp.
Hist. Brit. Fishes, p. 27, and Brit, Fishes (Ed. 2) i, p. 295 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 33 ;
Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 152, t. viii, f. 3.

Atherina hepsetus, Gunther, Catal. iii, p. 393 (? young).

Atherina Stuwitzii, Dub. and Kor. Kgl. Vet. Akad, Forhandl. 1844, p. 51,
t. ii, f. 4 ; Nilss. Skand. Faun. p. 229, Forh. Skand. Nat. July, 1863.

Latrunculus albus, Gunther, Catal. iii, pp. 80, 556.

Latrunculus pellucidus, Gunther, Catal. iii, p. 556; Collett, Pro. Zoo. Soc. 1878,
p. 319 ; Giglioli, Pes. Ital. 1880, p. 30.

Gobiosoma stuvitzii, Gunther, Catal. iii, p. 86.

Boreogobius stuvitzii, Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 269 (no
description) .

Latrunculus stuvitzii, Collett, Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1872, p. 9, and Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 319.

Gobius gracilis or slender goby, Couch, 1. c. p. 172, pi. cii, fig. 3 (young), also
Transparent goby, G. pellucidus, 1. c. p. 171, pi. cii, fig. 2.

Aphya pelhicida, Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 238.

B. v, D. 5/^1x3, P. 16, V. 1/5, A. ^ C. 17, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 5, Vert. 27.

* Professor Collett remarks, p. 322, as one reason for doubting what species Aphia, Eisso
applies to, that " the number of the rays in the first dorsal fin is also omitted, which is a point of
great importance." But iu Ich. Nice, p. 341, it is observed by Risso, " la premiere nageoire dorsale
contient cinq rayons," This was the nomiat, doubtless the form here referred to.

170 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Length of head 4f to 4f , of caudal fin 6 to 6, height of body 6 to 7-|
in the total length. Eye diameter 1/4 of the length of the head, 1 diameter
from the end of the snout : the interorbital space is about 1/2 a diameter of
the eye in width except in the breeding males when it is twice that width.
The body, except during the breeding season when the male becomes more
plump (see Breeding, below), is elongated and compressed, with the vent about
midway between the hind edge of the eye and end of the caudal fin. Mouth
oblique, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaching to beneath the middle of
the eye. Numerous rows of glands pass over the cheeks. The jaws of the male
augment in size and become more oblique during the breeding season. Teeth
similar in both sexes prior to the breeding season in a single row of 20 to 25
minute ones placed close together : in the males they are replaced at this period
by a row of long pointed and rather widely separated ones, both sets may be
visible a short time in the same example ; in the mandible there are three or four on
each side, while below and inside the last of these teeth there is a recurved
canine : in the upper jaw there are about five of these long teeth on each side, and
inside the row on each side a recurved canine. Fins First dorsal highest in
males, in which it is rather above two-thirds the height of the body below it : an
interspace exists between the two dorsal fins : the second dorsal fin is rather
higher than the body in adults, while the last rays decrease considerably in height.
Anal similar to second dorsal. Caudal in females or young slightly eraarginate, in
males square with the corners occasionally rounded or the middle rays may
be even produced. Ventrals in adults extend almost or quite as far backwards as
the pectorals. Scales cycloid, large, thin and deciduous, they are inserted into
oblique muscular impressions on the body. Colours transparent or pale yellow
with a single row of yellowish-red points along the bases of the dorsal and anal
fins which ai*e straw coloured.

Varieties. Parnell's descriptions apply to males taken during the breeding
season, although he possessed both sexes, as Dr. Giinther supplied three of them
to Professor Collett, one of which was a typical female, L. stuvitzii.

Name. Nonnat, French.

Habits. They are free swimmers, going with moderate rapidity, not residing
at the bottom. They live in large shoals and are taken in fine-meshed nets
set in from one to fifteen fathoms. In the Adriatic they are in immense numbers
and sold as food. They are frequently perceived coming to the surface but cannot
regain the depths, being fatigued and unable to exercise sufficient compression
upon their distended air-bladders. Collett says that the food in those he examined
from Christiania Fjords, in both summer and winter, consisted chiefly of micro-
scopic Copepods and other small pelagic animals. The Copepods, Dias longiremis,
Lilljeb, Temora velo.v, Baird, together with the larvae of decapods (Hijjpolyte and
Palcemon) and Mollusks in their swimming stage, Cardium.

Breeding. Collett considers it probable that no specimen lives more than
one year, and the breeding season completed, dies without going through a second
spawning, consequently they are really annual vertebrates. In Christiania Fjord
they breed in the summer months, normally between the end of June and com-
mencement of August. Spawning over all disappear. Most of the young attain
their full size in December or January, no trace of adults is perceptible, and all
go through the following changes. Here I propose adverting to the different
appearances of this fish, as discriminated by Professor Collett, whether in the
breeding season or otherwise. Out of the breeding season, there is but little
difference in the appearance of the sexes, the teeth being small, of uniform size
and in a single row. The males if nearly mature have longer jaws, and more
thickened heads than the females, while external to the row of teeth described
is an outer series of rather larger conical ones : the anterior rays of the second
dorsal and anal are higher than the posterior ones : while the caudal is square
or slightly emarginate. Mature males have a plump body and broad interorbital
space, with a thickened head, and a single row of long pointed teeth : while the
second dorsal and anal fins have the anterior and posterior rays of about the
same height : caudal truncated or rounded. The females, if nearly mature, differ

GOBIIMJ. 171

from the immature fish in the belly being 1 more swollen. Mature females do
not have the head thickened, while it is somewhat more pointed than in the
male : the cleft of the mouth is of less depth : the teeth unchanged, while the
second dorsal and anal taper posteriorly as in the immature.

Uses. Food for every larger fish in the vicinity, and for Crustacea as well
as for sea birds, but on the borders of the Mediterranean they are largely used
for human beings. Along the Maritime Alps, they are the object of a distinct
fishery, especially during the month of March, being considered a very recherche
dish.

Habitat. In innumerable numbers in the Christiania Fjord, and from the
western shores of Norway along the western shores of Europe, through the
Mediterranean and Adriatic, also up the Black Sea.

I have obtained them at Aberdeen : they have been recorded from the Solway
Firth and Firth of Forth : also from the Bristol Channel and Weymouth and
the south coast.

The example figured, 2 times magnified, is a male from Aberdeen. This
fish does not appear to much exceed 1^ inches in length.

172 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

Genus 3. Crystallogobius, Gill.

Gobiosoma (part) Giinther : Latrunculodes, Collett.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Body elongated and compressed.
Teeth only distinctly present in the males and in a single roiv, with two strong
canines in the lower jaw. Gill openings wide. Two separate dorsal fins, the first
composed of two spines, the second with a moderate number of rays (19-20) : anal
almost similar to the second dorsal. Ventrals united forming a disc. Scales absent.
Air-bladder present.

Geographical distribution. Coasts of Norway and Sweden, also the west coast
of Scotland off Banffshire, so probably exists in intermediate localities, but has
escaped detection due to its small size and being mistaken for Aphia pellucida.
Most that is known of this fish is due to the labours of Professor Collett, from
whom the greater portion of the following remarks are taken.

u >

Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Plate LIII, Fig. 4 (f male).

Gobius Nilssonii, Dub. and Kor. Vet. Akad. Handl. Stockh. 1844, p. 53, t. ii,
f. 3; Nilss. Skand. Faun, iv, p. 227; Life of Edward pp. 375, 427.

Gobius linearis, Dub. and Kor. Ofver. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1845, i, p. 111.

Gobiosoma Nilssonii, Giinther, Catal. iii, 1861, p. 86.

Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 269 ; Collett,
Pro. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 331.

Latrunculus Nilssonii, Collett, Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1872, p. 10.

Latrunculodes Nilssonii, Collett, 1. c. 1874, p. 151.

B. vii, D. 2/19-20, P. 30-31, V. 1/5, A. 21, C. 14-15, Vert. 29.

Length of head 4^ to 5, of caudal fin f ?\, height of body 7 to 8^ in the total
length. Eye lateral, diameter 1/4 of the length of the head, 1 diameter
apart in the females, a little more in the males, and 1 diameter from the end of
the snout. The heads in adult males are thickened and the snout short : the cleft
of the mouth deep, while the end of the mandibles are bent upwards and received
into an emargination in the upper jaw. In the young males the head is more
pointed, almost as in the females, in which the jaws are short, straight, and
toothless. In adult males the maxilla extends backwards to beneath the hind
edge of the eye. Teeth These are not changed during the breeding season as
observed in Aphia. The males at this period have 13 to 14 closely placed, small,
acute, and pointed teeth in a single row in the premaxillaries, while on the projecting
square extremity of the mandibles there is externally a canine at each angle and a
single row of eight fine-pointed teeth extending between the canines. Fins The
first dorsal fin in the male commences over the base of the pectoral fin, and
consists of two rays which come to a fine termination, but are not continued
beyond the membrane, which extends as far as the base of the second dorsal fin.
The anal is similar to the second dorsal, both consisting of short and undivided
rays, except the last which is sometimes divided. Pectoral, with a broad base,
and well developed, its central 12 or 14 rays are branched. Caudal square or
slightly emarginate, with 9 or 10 short rays on either side of its base. Ventral
reaches half way to the vent, its inner rays shorter than its outer ones. The vent
is situated midway between the end of the snout and the root of the caudal fin.
The angular insertions of the muscles along the side of the body are well marked,
being about 27 in number. Colours Almost transparent, with a light bluish
tinge : a dark spot at the end of the lower jaw. A small black spot at the root
of each dorsal and anal ray, those along the dorsal being sometimes wanting in
the female.

Habits. It would seem to inhabit somewhat deep water, and probably rests at

GOBIID^E. 173

the bottom, most examples having been dredged at about 30 fathoms depth.
Brought to the surface, their air-bladders become distended, as observed in Aphia
(p. 170). Professor Collett found the stomachs of some captured in June tilled
with the digested remains of Entomostraca.

Breeding. During the summer months, perhaps commencing as early as
March or April. During this season the body does not increase in width as
observed occurs in Aphia. Collett suggests that after the conclusion of the
spawning the specimens no doubt perish, their life having then lasted only one
year.

Life history. The young males, as already observed, have the head somewhat
pointed as in the females ; the teeth in the jaws are visible, and all the fins
normally developed. As maturity is reached the head thickens, the snout
becomes short, the extremity of the mandibles are curved upwards and received
into an emargination in the upper jaw, while a canine is perceptible at each angle
of this prominence of the lower jaw. The young females have the body slender
and pointed, jaws toothless, and the first dorsal and ventral fins appear to be
wanting. The mature female is much more slender than the adult male, Prof.
Collett finding that it required two of the former to balance in weight one of the
latter. The head is pointed, the jaws straight and almost or entirely destitute of
teeth ; the first dorsal and ventral fins are rudimentary ; the pectorals short, while
the rays of the second dorsal and anal are shorter than in the males.

Habitat. It has been recorded from the coasts of Norway and Sweden, the
most northern point being Christiansund. It is evidently much rarer than Aphia,
and partial to more northern localities.

In May, 1868, Mr. Edward obtained a male from a rock pool at Banff, which
he most obligingly placed at my service, and from which my figure was taken ; it
is magnified to twice the natural size.

174 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family, XVIII CALLIONYMIDjE, Richardson.

Branchiostegals five to six: pseudobranchise present. Gill-openings of
moderate width, or very narrow. Body mostly elongated. No osseous articula-
tion between the preopercle and infraorbital ring of bones. Teeth in the jaws,
none on the palate. Two dorsal fins, the anterior with from four to seven
flexible spines; second dorsal and anal similar; ventrals wide asunder. Scales
and lateral-line present or absent. Air-bladder absent.

Genus I. Callionymus,* Linnaeus.

Synchiropus and Liplogrammus, Gill.

Branchiostegals five or six : pseudobranchia3 present. Gill-openings very narrow,
in some merely a small circular orifice at the upper edge of the opercle. Head and
anterior portion of the body depressed. Eyes of moderate size, usually directed somewhat
upwards. Mouth narrow, upper jaw protractile. A strong, variously-armed spine
at the angle of the preopercle. Teeth in the jaws minute ; palate edentulous. Two
dorsal fins, the anterior consisting of three or four flexible spines; ventrals widely
separated, each possessing five rays. Lateral-line single or double. Air-bladder
absent.

These littoral fishes, commonly known as " dragonets," appear to live
mostly at the sea bottom. They are extensively distributed, being found in the
temperate seas of the Old World, India, the Malay Archipelago, and even
beyond. In many instances they exhibit sexual distinctions either in the length
of their fins, in their colours, or in both. They have been sub-divided in
accordance with the size and position of the gill-openings, and whether the lateral
line is single or double, as follows: (1) Gill-openings small, superior : lateral-line
single. (2) Gill-openings small, superior : lateral-line double. (3) Gill-openings
lateral and more extensive : lateral-line single. (4) Gill-openings lateral and
more extensive : lateral-line double.

1. Callionymus lyra, Plate LIV, Fig. 1, male; Fig. 2, female.

Exocozhis, sp. Bel. p. 218. Dracmiculus, Rondel, p. 304 ; Gesner, Pise. p. 80 ;
Aldrov. 1. 2, c. 52 ; Willughby, p. 136, t. H 6, f. 3 ; Ray, p. 79 ; Borlase,
Cornwall, p. 270, t. 26, f. 10 ; Seba, Hi, t. 30, f. 7. Uranoscopus sp. Gronov. Zooph.
No. 204, 205, 206 and Mus. Ich. i, p. 21, No. 63 ; Artedi, syn. 77. Corystion, sp.
Klein, Pise. MSS. iv, p. 47, No. 10. Lyra Harvicensis, Petiver, Gazophyl. t. xxii,
f. 2. Dragon fish, Martens, Spitzberg. p. 123. Floy fische, Pontop. Norway, ii,
iii ; Strom, Sondm. i, p. 278. Duhamel, Peches, ii, sect. 5, p. 116, pi. x. The
Gemmous dragonet, Low, Faun. Oread, p. 229; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776)
iii, p. 164, pi. xxvii, (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 221, pi. xxxi ; also Sordid dragonet, I.e.
p. 224, pi. xxxii.

Callionymus lyra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 433, and Faun. Suec. p. 110 ; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 43, pi. xxviii, f. 93; Bloch, ii, p. 71, f. clxi ; Lacep. ii, p. 329, pi. x,
f. 1 ; Bl. Schn. p. 39 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1151 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 103 and Eur.
Merid. iii, p. 262; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. ix ; Turton, p. 88; Retz. Faun,
p. 313 ; Mull. Zool. Dan, p. 21, pi. xxviii ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 208 ; Couch, Trans.
Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 71, and Fish. Brit. Isles ii, p. 173, pi. ciii ; Jenyns, Man. p. 388 ;
Fries, Vet. Acad. Handl. 1837, p. 39; Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 95, t. xxii
and xxiii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 261, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 297 (Ed. 3) ii,
p. 310 ; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 88 ; Cuv. and. Val. xii, p. 266 ; Neill,

* Dr. Giinther An. and Mag. Nat. Hist (4) 1874, xiii, p. 139, has recorded the tropical species
of Callionymus sagitta as dredged off the Shetland Isles.

CALLIONYMIDiE. 175

Wern. Mem. i, p. 529 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske i, p. 422 : Cuv. Regne Anim. 111.
Poiss. t. lxxxii, f. i ; Nilss. Skand. Fauna Fisk. p. 212 ; Swainson, Fishes ii,
p. 280 ; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 78; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 55 ;
Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 117 : Schlegel, Dieren Neder. 70, pi. vi, f. 6, 7;
Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 139; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 174; Steind. Ich.
Span. n. Port. 1868, p. 66 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 62 ; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 19 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 164.

Gallionymus dracunculus (female) Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 433 ; Bonnaterre, 1. c.
p. 43, pi. xxvii, f . 94 ; Strom, Norske Selsk. Nye Handl. i, p. 149 ; Bloch, ii,
p. 84, t. clxii, f. 2; Lacep. ii, p. 335; Bl. Schn. p. 40; Gmel. Linn. p. 1152;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 1042; Retz. Fauna, p. 313; Mull. Zool. Dan. i, p. 434;
Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, t. lxxxiv; Turt. Brit. Fauna, p. 89; Johnston, Zool.
Journ. iii, p. 336, and Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 172 ; Thompson, Pro. Zool.
Soc. 1835, p. 81, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 118: Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 274;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 266, c. Fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 302 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 315;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410 ; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth,
p. 90, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 250 : Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger. Poissons, p. 79
(not G. dracunculus Risso, Bonaparte, Canestrini, or Moreau).

Gallionymus elegans, Lesueur, Bull. Sc. Soc. Phil, de Paris 1814, p. 6, pi. i,
f. 17 (? young).

Uranoscopus lyra (male), U. dracunculus (female) and U. micropterygms,
(immature male) Gronov. ed Gray. pp. 42, 43.

Dusky skulpin, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 178. pi. civ.

B. vi, D. 4/9, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. 9, C. 9, Vert. 8/13.

Length of head 4 in the male, 5 in the female, of caudal fin 5, height of body
7 in the total length. Eye directed upwards and slightly outwards : lids with
free edges only along the lower margin of the eyes, the skin of the head being
continued over their upper portion. Interorbital space very narrow. Head broad
and compressed. Snout much more elongated and pointed in the adult than in
the immature males or in the females. Upper jaw protractile. A strong spine,
at the angle of the preopercle, which is shorter than the eye : it is compressed and
terminates in three triangular processes, two of which are directed upwards, one
backwards, while a fourth at its base is pointed forwards. Teeth in jaws small,
absent from vomer or palatines. Fins in the male the first dorsal ray is much
elongated, reaching beyond the base of the caudal fin, while the remainder of the
rays are longer than in the female. In the female (and immature males) the first
dorsal spine is very slightly prolonged ; the last ray of the second dorsal divided
to its base and also elongated. The ventral rays and the seven central ones of the
caudal fin are sub-divided at their extremities ; the remainder are undivided.
In the young males the head is broader than in the females. Lateral-
line single ; but the two are connected together by one or two ptxdonga-
tions over the free edge of the tail. Anal papilla prominent in adult males,
slightly so in the immature, and hidden in the female. Colours in the male :
cheeks and lower half of the head orange with rounded spots and marking's of
ultramarine blue, some of which extend on to the upper surface of the head.
The upper surface of the body yellow tinged with red, having light blue or lilac-
coloured spots and markings. An ultramarine blue band passes from the upper
part of the base of the pectoral fin to the base of the caudal ; immediately below
this is an orange stripe, and next a second blue one. First dorsal fin of a dull
lemon colour, with a longitudinal reddish or lilac basal band, and vertical ones in
its superior two-thirds. Second dorsal with four pale blue bands. Caudal lemon
coloured and blue in about equal parts. Ventral dark bluish pm^ple with a few
lighter spots at its base. Pectoral having its upper half reddish brown, with
indistinct bands. Anal with a dark outer edge. Female of a dull brown,
becoming light on the sides and white beneath : on it are irregularly-placed
darker spots and blotches, with numerous light or brown spots along the body
above the lateral-line, immediately below which is an irregular row of about eight
dark marks, while the lower surface is white ; there are three dark bands, more

176 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

or less distinct, across the back. First dorsal bluish-black, in its posterior two-
thirds ; second dorsal bluish with a central yellowish band. Upper pectoral rays
with some yellowish bands ; ventral dusky ; caudal with three vertical bands.
The colours of these fish are so beautiful and fade so rapidly after death that they
require being seen when alive to be appreciated. The immature males have the
spots along the upper surface of the body blue.

Varieties. Immature males coloured like females, but possessing milt or
soft roe, having been captured, it was surmised that the two were sexes of one
species and not identical with the gemmous dragonet : an error perpetuated by
several authors. Pennant in his edition of 1812 asserted the differences were
merely sexual. Neill, p. 529 (Mem. Wern. Soc), likewise pointed out the sexes,
and observed they were often taken in the Firth of Forth in from 12 to 20
fathoms water on haddock lines baited with mussels.

Names. Gemmous dragonet, or the male seems to have been so termed from
the brilliancy of its gem-like colours. The appellation "dragonet" was
substituted by Pennant for " yellow gurnard," a name it was previously known
by. It is likewise locally known as the bridegroom (Banffshire). Balle-eries,
" Leries " is a "messenger" (Aberdeen). The female and young males are
termed fox (mouth of Thames) ; skulpin or yellow skulpin (male). Chanticleer,
gowdie, Scot, (male) gowd or gold denoting its yellow colour. Sordid dragonet,
dusky skulpin (female). Chiquer (male) and Doucet (female) at Dieppe; Savamj,
at Caen; Lavandiere, at Fecamp ; Comard, at Brest (male). Fcesing, Norway.
Pitvisch, Holland.

Lacepede, enraptured at its scientific and beautiful name, wrote : " What
pleasing images, what touching recollections does its not recall ? Celestial beauty
charming our eyes enchanting music touching our hearts : these two names
happily associated restore through memory your sweet but irresistible power."
Pontoppidan called it a " flying fish," as it was supposed to use its pectoral fins in
order to raise itself out of the water.

Habits. Does not appear to congregate in shoals, while the adult male is
believed to prefer deeper water, as from 20 to 60 fathoms, than does the
female or the young these latter being more frequently observed closer inshore
near to the edge of the tide, especially in sandy bays or at the mouths of large
rivers. This fish generally remains near the bottom among stones or sand, and
possesses very acute vision ; it darts away immediately on being alarmed, while,
according to Dr. Ball, it is able to bury itself. In an aquarium it remains quite
still at the bottom of the tank, and even covers itself with sand except merely the
top of the head as far as the gill-openings. Now and then it will dart along for a
short distance, and then settle down again often at the very spot from where it
set out. It feeds on testaceous animals which it swallows entire, also on worms
and molluscs. It lives some time after removal from the water. Mr. Dunn on
May 24th, 1881, obtained at Mevagissey a yellow sculpin caught in a mackerel net
at the surface of the sea 14 miles from land and in 40 fathoms water.

Means of capture. Usually by trawls and nets ; while small ones are taken in
sandy bays by shrimpers. Pennant observes that in his time it was often secured
by the hook in 30 or 40 fathoms water off Scarborough. It is frequently found
in the stomach of the cod. A fisherman informed Thompson that he occasionally
took this fish on long lines set on muddy but never on sandy bottoms. Off some
localities on the south-west coast its preopercular spine is believed to occasion a
poisonous wound.

Baits. Although it occasionally takes a bait, the size of its mouth precludes
large hooks being employed for this purpose.

Breeding. Dr. G. Johnston (Zool. Journal, iii, p. 336) recorded having found
a sordid dragonet containing milt or soft roe, it being a young male. The Rev.
G. Harris (Zool. p. 2999 and 3118) mentions having discovered hard roe in
a gemmous dragonet, which, provided the observation were correct, is interesting
as seeming to show that the female might assume the colours of the male and
still not be sterile. The obsei'vation does not seem to have been confirmed by any
other naturalist.

CALLIONYMID^. 177

As food. Its flesh is white and firm.

Habitat. The coasts of Norway, Denmark, and the German Ocean, but
reputed not to extend to the Baltic : found round the British Isles : it is not rare
off the French coast, but exceedingly uncommon in the Mediterranean.*

Couch has with justice observed that " the habits of naturalists rather than of the
fish have caused it to be regarded as rare " around the British Isles. In the
Orkneys Lowe obtained a single male example about 6 inches in length entangled
among the sea- ware ; while Baikie remarked upon its being rare in the Orkneys
and Zetland. It is occasionally found off Banffshire (Edward). It has likewise
been recorded from the Moray Firth, and Lossiemouth : at St. Andrews it is
common in deep water, and in the stomach of the cod (Mcintosh). In the Firth
of Forth it is common, and after storms from the east has been captured as far
inland as Alloa and Kincardine (Neill). It has been recorded from Cumberland
and along the east coast, but stated by Lowe to be very rare off Yarmouth. Along
the south coast it is by no means uncommon, and extends up the Bristol Channel.

In Ireland it is occasionally found all round the island. Templeton in 1821
recorded a fine specimen taken in Carrickfergus Bay, while a female was also
found inside a cod fish. At Belfast it is not uncommon, and one 8 inches in
length was secured at Donaghadee.

It attains to at least 12 inches in length. The examples figured, life size, were
from Southend at the mouth of the Thames.

2. Callionymus maculatus, Plate LIII, fig. 5 (male).

Bracunculus, Rondel, x, c. 12, p. 304 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 51, p. 262 ; Willughby,
p. 136, t. H 6, f . 3 ; Ray, p. 79. Cottus, sp. 5, Artedi, Genera, p. 49, and sp. 4,
Synon. p. 77.

Callionymus maculatus (Rafin.) Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesci, fig. 2, male, fig. 3,
female ; Schagerstr. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1833, p. 133 ; Fries, ibid. 1837, p. 48 ;
Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 102, pi. xxiv ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 442 ;
Nilss. Skand. Fauna, Fisk. p. 216, Giinther, Catal. hi, p. 144, and Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (3) 1867, xx, p. 290 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 66 ; Winther,
Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 19 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 62 ; Giglioli, Pesc.
Ital. p. 30 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 169.

Callionymus lyra, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 113, and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 262.

Callionymus dracunculus, Briinn. Pise. Mass. p. 17 ; Nardo, Prod. Adr. Ich.
sp. 46.

Callionymus cithara, Cuv. Regne Anim ; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 280.

Callionymus reticulatus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 284.

B. vi, D. 4/9-10, P. 16, V. 1/5, A. 8-9, C. 9-10.

Length of head 4 to 4f, of caudal fin 6, height of body 9 to 13 in the
total length. Eye -directed upwards and outwards, 1/3 to 1/4 of the length
of the head, and \\ diameters from the end of the snout ; interorbital space
narrow. Head broad and depressed, its width being 1^ to If in its length.
Snout rounded. Upper jaw protractile ; the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. A strong spine, much shorter than
the eye, exists at the angle of the preopercle, it is compressed and armed with three
or four pointed processes, much less developed than in G. lyra: two are directed
upwards, while the lower spine has a process pointing anteriorly at its base, but
which is occasionally absent. Teeth in jaws small ; absent from vomer and
palatines. Fins in the male both the dorsal fins are much elevated, the first
spine of the anterior fin equalling from 1/3 to 2/5 of the total length, and much
higher than the succeeding ones ; second dorsal three times as high as the body
below it. In the female the first dorsal fin is triangular, much lower than in the

* In the British Museum Catalogue examples stated to have come from the Adriatic and the
Mauritius are considered by Dr. Giinther to pertain to this species.

12

178 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

male, as its height merely equals that of the body. Colours gray, becoming
light beneath ; several oval, pearl coloured spots, some of which on the side of the
body, are surrounded by a dark ring. Fins light coloured, the dorsal with three
or four rows of round black spots encircled by a pearly ocellus. Three or four
vertical bands cross the pectoral fin : ventral dark in its outer half. Anal edged
with deep gray. Caudal dark in its posterior half.

Habits. Probably much the same as those of the last species, but little is
known of them.

Habitat. Scandinavia and the coast of Denmark, while an example has been
dredged off the Shetland Isles, and placed in the British Museum. It does not
appear to have been recorded on the Atlantic coast of France, but becomes more
common in the Mediterranean extending to the Adriatic.

The example figured is the British specimen alluded to.

DISCOBOLI. 179

Family, XIX DISCOBOLI (part), Cuvier.

Body rounded, transversely expanded or oblong. Teeth minute. Gill-openings
narrow. Grill-membranes attached to the isthmus. Gills, three and a half.
One or two dorsal fins, the anal being similar to the second dorsal. Ventrals
each with one spine and five rudimentary rays, which form the centre or
framework of a round suctorial disc, which has a skinny outer margin. Air-
bladder absent. Pyloric appendages numerous, or in moderate numbers.

Cuvier's Discoboli included the Gobiesocidce in addition to the fishes as here
restricted, which having their ventral fins forming a suctorial disc allies them to
the gobies. They have been divided as follows :

A. Two separate dorsal fins Cyclopterina.

B. One dorsal fin : the infraorbital ring of bones not articulating with the
preopercle Liparidina.

Geographical distributioyi. Mostly littoral and carnivorous fishes, some of
which are of a small size, while all can attach themselves to rocks or other
desirable objects by means of their suctorial discs. They are found from the
Arctic Ocean to the more temperate regions of Europe and America.

Genus I. Cyclopterus, Linnceus.

Lump us, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchice present. Body short, thickened, and more
or less elevated. Villiform teeth in the jaws, none on the palate or tongue. Gill-
openings narrow, the gill-membrane being attached to the isthmus : gills three and
a half. Two dorsal fins, the anterior, which may become more or less atrophied in
the adult, is formed of flexible spines. Ventral consisting of one spine and five rays,
the two united so as to form a somewhat circular disc. Second dorsal opposite and
nearly similar to the anal. Shin loose, viscoios, having tubercles in roivs as well as
scattered. Skeleton but slightly osseous.

Gill has instituted genus Uamicrotremus for the reception of Cyclopterus
spinosus of Fabrieius.

Geographical distribution. As observed for the Family.

The modification of the ventral fins into a suctorial disc enables these fishes
to inhabit regions which would otherwise be fatal to their existence, as during
storms should they not be firmly attached to some unyielding substance, their
unwieldly bodies would soon be beaten to death by the waves or dashed on to the
shore. Mr. A. Wilson (Nature, June 26th, 1879) suggests whether this sucker
may not have been developed by natural selection as an useful adjunct to the
breathing movements of the fish, as when fixed it appeared to be perfectly at
its ease, and to breathe more fully and strongly than when swimming about.

1. Cyclopterus lumpus, Plate LV.

Cyclopterus gibbosus, Willughby, p. 209, t. N 10, f. 2. Lumpus Anglorum,
Aldrov. iii, c. 68, p. 479 ; Jonston, i, tit. 1, c. 3. art. 3, punct. 12, p. 42, t. xiii,
f. 1 ; Willughby, p. 208, t. N 11 ; Ray, Syn. p. 77. Lepus marinus, Schonev.
p. 41. Cyclopterus, sp. Artedi, Gen. p. 62 ; Gronov. Mus. Ich. i, p. 56 ; Gouan,

12*

180 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Hist. Pise. p. 223. The Lump-sucker, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 133,
pi. xxi (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 176, pi. xxiv. Oncotion, No. 1, 2, 3, Klein, MSS. Pise,
iv, p. 49, t. xiv, f. 5 ; Ascan. Icon. t. xxxiv. The Lump-fish, Low, Nat. Hist, of
Orkneys, p. 177.

Cyclopterus lumpus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 414 and Faun. Snec. p. 320 ; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 26, pi. xx. f. 63 ; Fabr. Faun. Gronl. p. 131 ; Mohr. Isl. Nat. p. 61 ;
Bloch, Fis. Deut. ii, p. 103, pi. xc ; Bl. Schn. p. 197 ; Lacep. ii, p. 52, pi. iii, f . 1 ;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1473 ; Mull. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 39 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. x ;
Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 115 ; Cuv. Reg. Anira. ; Faber, Fis. Isl. p. 49 ; Retz. Faun,
p. 327 ; Rich. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fishes, p. 260 ; Ekstr. Fisk. Morko, p. 108 ;
Nilss. Prod. p. 61 and Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 232 ; Fries, Vet. Akad. Hand. 1838,
t. iv, f. 1 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 412 ; Johnston, Berwick.
Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 174 ; Diiben and Koren, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1844, p. 116,
t. iii, f. 8 ; Tarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 270, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 365 (Ed. 3)
i, p. 343 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 190 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. ii, p. 489 ; Parnell, Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 380 and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 220 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 339 ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 471 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 39 ; Gaim. Voy. Isl. &c. pi. viii ;
Thompson, N. Hist. Ireland, iv. p. 215 ; Giinther, Catal. viii, p. 155 ; White, Catal.
Fish. p. 109 ; Gill, Pro. Ac. N. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 190 ; Schlegel, Dieren Ned.
p. 58, t. vi, f. 1 ; Mcintosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. R. Soc. Ed. V. 1862-66, p. 614
(young) and Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 174; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 63; Winther,
Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 19 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 349.

Gyclopterus pavoninus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. ix, p. 310 (young male).

Gyclopterus coeruleus, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Sc. New York, i, p. 480,
pi. ii, f. 7.

Lumpus Anglorum, De Kay, New York Faun. Fishes, p. 305, pi. liv, f. 175.

Gyclopterus coronatus, Couch, Corn. Fauna, p. 47, Ann. Nat. Hist, ii, p. 382 ;
Thompson, An. and Mag. Nat. Hist, v, p. 9, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 216.

Gobius minutus, Mull. Zool. Dan. p. 38, t. cliv, B. f. 1-3 (young).

Cyclopterus minutus, Pall. Spic. Zool. vii, p. 12, t. iii, f. 7-9 ; Rich. 1. c. p. 262 ;
Kroyer, 1. c. ii, p. 491 ; Cuv. Reg. Anini.

Lepadogaster minutus, Bl. Schn. p. 3.

Lump-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 183, pi. cv.

B. vi, D. 4-6/10-11, P. 20-21, V. 1/5, A. 9-10, C. 10-11.

Length of head 4 to 4|, of caudal fin h\ to 6, height of body 2^ to 3 in the
total length. Eye high up and in the anterior half of the head, about 2
diameters in the very young, more in the adult, from the end of the snout, and
2 or 3 diameters apart. Interorbital space nearly flat. The maxilla reaches
to beneath the middle of the eye. Gill-opening in the form of an oblique cleft,
above the anterior half of the pectoral fin and ceasing opposite the centre of
the base of that fin. Teeth a band in either jaw of fine pointed ones : none on
the vomer or palatine bones, nor on the tongue. Fins first dorsal only seen in
the young, becoming enveloped in thick skin as age advances : fin rays simply
divided near their outer extremities (see Life History, p. 182). Ventral fins
united so as to form a sucker, its rays undivided, the base of each expanded.
Body covered with tubercles, among which may be distinguished four enlarged
rows, one along the back, the second from above the eye to the upper half of
the caudal fin, the third from the angle of the mouth continued above the
pectoral fin to the lower half of the caudal : while the fourth passes from below
the pectoral fin to the base of the anal. Numerous small tubercles exist over the
head and body. Stomach horse-shoe shaped and with about 50 ccecal
appendages more or less coalescing one with the other. Colours these differ
according to sex, speaking generally, the male, especially on its sides and beneath,
is red, and the female blue or even nearly black, but during the breeding season
the tints become much brighter and more varied. There are dark or even black
spots irregularly scattered over the body. The young are usually gi'een,
occasionally yellow, or both colours conjoined.

Varieties. The young are sometimes yellow, but more usually of a brilliant

DISCOBOLI. 181

emerald green, this last colour being sometimes continued in the adult, the sides
being tinged with crimson. Shaw (Nat. Misc. ix, p. 310) considered such to be
a different species (G. pavoninus) : while those possessing a prominent pyramidal
elevation on the back (due it has been surmised to bad stuffing) have been termed
C. pyramidatus (Shaw).

Names. Lump-sucker, due to its lumpy form and possessing a suctorial disc.
Paddle-cock, Scotland, owing to its dorsal ridge enveloped in tubercular skin,
resembling the comb of a domestic cock : also cock- and hen-paidle or red- and
blue-paidle, according to sex. Locally known as sea-owl and hush-bag aty.
Jar-for, Welsh. Snotdolf, Dutch. Lompe, grosmollet, and lievre de mer, French.

Habits. It is very tenacious of life, but inactive adhering firmly to rocks,
and rarely moving except when in pursuit of food, or during migrations : it has,
however, been said to progress with greater velocity than its appearance would
credit it with. Coming in-shore about March it usually retires to deeper
waters after August, or else conceals itself during winter under rocks, to
which it frequently attaches itself. Its food consists of marine worms and small
fish : while crustaceous animals, as Onisci, have been found in its stomach.

In its way it is sometimes a " commensal," as is the Echeneis, only it adheres
to floating objects, usually inanimate, for the purpose of being transported
from one locality to another. Couch alludes to an example found adhering to
the skin of a mackerel that had become entangled in a drift net over a con-
siderable depth of water. " As a proof of its tenacity, we have known that on
plunging a fish of this species, just caught, into a pail of water, it fixes itself so
firmly to the bottom, that on taking it by the tail, the whole pail by that means
was lifted, though it held some gallons, and that without removing the fish from
its hold " (Pennant).

Means of capture. The trawl, the trammel, or other nets ; while Mr. Cornish
(Zool. p. 3532) records a male full of milt, and nearly as large as a full grown
female, taken on March 28th, 1873, at Penzance, in about 30 fathoms of
water, by means of a surface mackerel net. This specimen instead of being red
" was of the usual dull leaden blue of the female over the back, inclining to the
usual dirty white on the belly." In the Zoologist for 1876 (p. 4961) the same
observer records two females of this species captured in mackerel drift nets at
Penzance fishing at the surface of deep water. Couch likewise remarks upon
their occasionally being taken in this way.

Baits. Rarely takes a bait although it has been known to do so.

Breeding. Adults come in-shore for this purpose from March until May.
Bloch counted 207,700 eggs in a fish 6| lb. in weight : in April, 1836, one which
was 15 inches in length contained a vast quantity of rose-coloured ova, weighing
25 oz. and having 101,935 ova (Thompson). In February, 1880, one of 111b.
weight had about 194,112 eggs (Buckland). " Fabricius related that the Lump-
sucker in April or May, enters the rocky bays of the Greenland coast for the
purpose of spawning : that the female, preceding the male, deposited the roe
among the large Algce in the fissures of the rocks : that, followed by the male
shortly afterwards, she finally left him fructifying the eggs and adhering to the
masses of roe till the eggs were hatched, and that he fought other fishes while
watching and guarding the important deposit. Johnston observes (Berwick.
K H. F. Club, 1838, i, p. 174) " The paidle spawns towards the end of March
and in April. At that season the hen approaches the shore and deposits her
spawn among the rocks and sea-weed within low water-mark, and immediately
afterwards returns to deeper water. The male then covers the spawn with his
sperm, and, according to the testimony of our fishermen, remains covering it, or
near it, until the ova are hatched. The young soon after birth fix themselves
to the sides and on the back of their male parent, who sails, thus loaded, to
deeper and more safe retreats. He is only one half the size of the hen, and at
the breeding season his belly becomes of a reddish colour. The spawn of a
single female will fill a large basin, and is of a beautiful pink colour : the eggs
globular and about the size of swan shot." At Gamrie, in Banffshire, Mr. G.
Harris, Zoologist, 1851, ix, p. 3157, observes " Upon this coast their ja&sts are

182 ACANTHOPTERTGII.

almost invariably to be met with in rocky places, a little beyond low water-mark-
There is also this peculiarity, that the sites of these are usually cavities, from
8 to 10 inches in diameter, opening horizontally into the water. Mr. West, of
Pennan, informs me that in one case he came upon a hen seated on her nest, just,
he supposed, as she had completed the process of spawning. She adhered very
tenaciously, manifesting at the same time considerable intrepidity, which seemed
to be shared by her companion, the cock, who, during the struggle kept close by,
flitting through and through the water in a state of violent agitation." Fabricius
even affirms that should the AnarrMchas, or wolf-fish, approach the nest of this
fish he hazards his life, for although the teeth of the lump-sucker are small, it is
able to attach itself to its adversary's neck and inflict a wound which will be
mortal. Sharks and rays will devour the lump-fish.

Life history.- The changes undergone by this fish, both as to the form of its
body, its fins, the character of its skin, and its colours, are very remarkable.
I am indebted to Mr. Jackson, of the South port Aquarium, for some of the fry
from one to three days old, hatched in that institution, and to Mr. Carrington, of
the Westminster Aquarium, for a fine series, but of a larger size. On first
emerging from the egg, and for the first few days, or even weeks, of its life, its
appearance when looked at from above is much that of a young tadpole, the body
forming an oval anteriorly, flattened from above, while the posterior half or
rather more of the fish is narrow and strongly compressed : no tubercles are
present on any part of the body. At a little over 1| inches, the first dorsal fin is
distinct, with about six rays, but its base is rather fleshy, and on its anterior edge
are two spinate tubercles, the lower being the larger. A row of spinate tubercles
runs along the back : a second from above the eye to the centre of base of the
caudal fin : while a third similar row is well developed along either side of the
abdominal edge, ceasing at the vent. Between these tubercles the skin is entirely
smooth. At 2 inches the first dorsal fin is more enveloped in rough skin, and the
skin between the rows of tubercles has commenced to be covered with small but
rough tuberosities. At 2| inches the dorsal ridge and the rough skin enveloping
the first dorsal fin have become more developed, while at 6 inches, as shown in the
figure, merely the ends of some of the rays of the first dorsal fin are perceptible,
the back at this situation forming a large and almost pyramidal elevation.
The skin between the rows of spinate tubercles is also densely studded with
small elevations.

As food. The quality of its flesh is said to be affected by the season, it
becoming worthless after spawning, but due to the odour it exhales it is
generally rejected : it is said to dissolve in the mouth like mucilage or oil.
Pennant remarks that in his time it was sometimes eaten in England, being
stewed like a carp, but he considered it to be both flabby and insipid. Donovan
likewise asserted that skinned and stewed by some its flesh was thought to be
not indifferent. Sir T. Brown, in 1662, recorded it as " esteemed by some as
a festival fish, though it affords but a glutinous jelly, and the skin is beset with
stony knobs after no certain order." Pennant observed that the seals prey on
them, leaving the skins, numbers of which thus emptied float ashore during spring
on the coast of Sutherland. Johnston, writing from Berwickshire, remarked that
although not iu use as food, the cock especially, is. reported to be excellent when
fried or baked. Buckland records that the males are the best as food, their flesh
is soft, rich, and oily, and some inhabitants of Edinburgh deem it second only to
turbot if fried or baked : while Sir Walter Scott, in the Antiquary, makes
Mr. Oldbuck offer the same price for a cock-paidle as he does for a bannock-
fluke or turbot. " On the west coast of Scotland," remarks Parnell, "sometimes
as many as two dozens are taken in the salmon nets at almost every tide,
principally in the month of June, when they seek the sandy ground to deposit
their spawn. The fishermen boil them down with vegetables for their pigs and
consider them to be fattening food." The roe is boiled to a pulp and eaten by
the Greenlanders.

Habitat. Most abundant in cold latitudes, it extends from the seas of Northern
Europe, being found off Iceland, along the coasts of Scandinavia, Denmark, and

DISCOBOLI. 183

North Germany, to Great Britain and Ireland, also the Channel Isles and Atlantic
coasts of France, having been recorded from Boulogne, Havre, and Roscoff , but
becoming rare in the Gulf of Gascogne. In the New World it extends from
Greenland and the Polar regions to New York and Cape Hatteras.

Very frequent, as noticed by Low, in the Orkneys and Shetlands (Baikie),
especially on the sand banks, where half a dozen are drawn ashore at once but
never of any great bulk. Also along the Scottish coasts : Thompson mentions its
existence in Ayrshire : Edward at Banff : Sim at Aberdeen : it is found at
Montrose and St. Andrew's, at which latter place Mcintosh observes that it is
common on the west sands after storms and occasionally in the stomach of the
cod, while the young abound in rock pools in autumn. It has likewise been
recorded at various places around the English and Welsh coasts, as Berwickshire,
also Yarmouth by Paget in 1819, one from which same locality, taken in January,
1848, and weighing 13|lb., is now in the Norwich Museum; while at Lynn a fine
male example was captured March 30th, 1853, perhaps carried up the river by a
flowing tide. It had probably entered the bay after small herrings and smelts,
which were being captured by the fishermen. It has frequently been taken and
it is not rare along the south coast, but becomes less numerous in Cornwall, where,
however, it is common in particular localities : Mr. Cornish (Zool. 1874, p. 4037)
finds the female is not uncommon at Penzance, but the male to be rare.

In Ireland it is captured around the coast, but Templeton observes that it is
not very common, and Thompson subsequently that on the north-east they are
taken, seldom more than one or two at a time, during the breeding season, in nets
set for various fishes, as it generally enters arms of the sea in spring to deposit
its ova.

This fish attains to a considerable size, the female being usually larger than the
male: one of the former was captured in Jersey in 1879 which weighed 15f lb.
Storer mentions an American example which weighed 17 lb. Thompson records
an Irish specimen which measured 23| inches in length, and it is rare for the
lump-sucker to exceed 2 feet. The example, figured life size, was obtained off
the coast of Sussex.

184 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus 2. Liparis, Artedi.

Cy clog aster, Gronov.

Branchiostegals Jive or six : pseudobranchice, if present, rudimentary. Body
anteriorly subcylindrical, posteriorly compressed, the whole being enveloped in a
loose, movable shin. A bonxj process proceeds from the infraorbital ring of bones
and passes backwards to the edge of the preopercle. Cleft of mouth almost horizontal.
A wide, rasp-like, band of teeth in both jaws, none on the palate nor on the
tongue. Gill-openings narrow, the gill membranes united and attached to the
isthmus. A single dorsal fin, the anterior rays of which, though not articulated,
are flexible : ventrals united, and forming a more or less circular adhesive disc.
Coecal appendages in moderate numbers or numerous.

Gill remarks (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 190) that among the species
forming 1 this genus considerable variation exists, especially in the relations of
the dorsal and anal fins to the caudal, these fins being, in some species, completely
isolated, while in others they are coalescent, and united in an almost anguilliform
posterior fin. In the latter, the nostrils also appear to be simple, while in the former
the posterior ones are tubular. These differences appear still further to be
coincident with a disj)arity in the number of caudal vertebras, and of the rays of
the vertical fins.

Geographical distribution. These small littoral species occasionally ascend
into fresh waters, and extend from the Arctic Ocean southwards into temperate
regions : one species being found even within the tropics. Two British species
are admitted, but it seems possible that the one known as Liparis Montagui is the
commonest, and noti. vulgaris, unless in the more northern latitudes. Neither is
L. Montagui, although termed the diminutive sucker, so much less in size than the
"unctuous sucker." Unless in colour, the differences between the two are but
slight.

1. Liparis vulgaris, Plate LYI, fig. 1.

Sea snail, Willughby, Ich. Append, p. 17 ; Low, Nat. Hist. Orkneys, p. 178 ;
Petiver, Gazoph. t. Ii, f . 5. Liparis nostras, "Will. Appendix, p. 17, t. H 6, f . 1 ;
Ray, p. 74. Gobio, sp. Kolr. Nov. Comm. Petroph. ix, p. 439, t. ix, f. 5, 6.
Cyclogaster, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 198, Act. Helv. iv, p. 265, No. 165, t. xiii.
Liparis, sp. Bl. Schn. p. 569. Unctuous sucker, Penn. Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii,
p. 135, pi. xxi (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 179, pi. xxiv.

Cyclopterus liparis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 414 ; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 27, pi. xx.
f. Q7 ; Bl. t. 123, f. 3, 4; Gmel. Linn. p. 1477; Lacep. ii, p. 69; Donovan, Brit.
Pish, ii, pi. xlvii ; Turton, p. 115 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 174 ;
Schleg. Dieren Neder. p. 60, pi. vi, f. 2.

Liparis vulgaris, Flem. Brit. An. p. 190; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 274,
c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 371 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 349 ; Nilss. Skan. Faun. p. 237; Flem. Brit.
An. p. 190 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 472 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 534 ; Parnell,
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 383, and Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 223 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 221 ; White, Catal. Fish. p. 109 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 159 and
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) 1874, xiii, p. 139 ; Mcintosh, Fish. N. Uist. P. R. S.
of Edin. V. 1862-66, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 175; H. Malmgren, Spets.
Fisk Fauna, p. 510 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 353 ; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 20.

Liparis communis, Sabine, Appen. Parry's first Yoy. p. 212.

Liparis barbatus, Ekst. Yet. Ak. Hand. 1832, p. 168, t. v, and Fisk. Scheer.
Mork('), p. 112, t. v; Nilss. Skan. Faun. Fisk. p. 237; Kroye^ ii, p. 534.

Liparis ophidoides, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 339.

Cyclogastt r li]>aris, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 40.

Liparis lineattis, Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 65.

DISCOBOLI. 185

Sea snail, Couch, Fishes of the British Isles, ii, p. 190, pi. cvi.

(Varieties.}
Liparis muscuhcs, Lacep. iv, p. 683.

Liparis lineatus, Kroyer, Nat. Tids. ii, 1847, p. 284; Gaim. Voy. Scand. Poiss.
pi. xiii, f. 2.

B. v-vi, D. 34-36, P. 28, V. 1/5, A. 27-28, C. 12-14, Vert. 12/30.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 7h, height of body 4 in the total length.
Eye small, rather in front of the middle of the length of the head, the length
of the snout equalling the width of the interorbital space, and equal to from 2 to 2|
diameters of the orbit. Head broad, its greatest width equalling three-fourths
of its length : body much compressed posteriorly, commencing opposite the
origin of the anal tin. Snout broad. Mouth anterior, wide, the maxilla reaching
posteriorly to beneath the front edge of the eye : the upper jaw slightly the
longer. Nostrils small, patent : the posterior one nearer the eye than to the
upper lip. No barbels. Teeth small, disposed in both jaws in oblique rows,
most numerous in the upper jaw : none on vomer, palatines, - or tongue, which
last organ is very thick. Fins the dorsal commences over the middle of the
pectoral, being lowest anteriorly, while it scarcely joins the base of the caudal.
Pectorals reach to above the base of the anal, they are broad, extending downwards,
and forwards under the throat, the lower six rays being rather elongated, causing
the fin to appear notched. Ventrals each with six rays surrounding the disc,
which is rather longer than broad, and equal in diameter to about half the length
of the head. Anal commences below the sixth or seventh dorsal ray, is rather
higher than the dorsal, while its last ray is connected to the base of the caudal,
which latter is nearly square at its extremity. Vent about midway between the
hind edge of the disc and the commencement of the anal fin. Skin very loose,
extending over the fins. Colours of a pale gray or bi*own, having irregularly
distributed narrow and horizontal darker bands, sometimes of a purplish colour,
and most distinct on the anterior portion of the body : outer half of dorsal and
anal fins brown, due to dark narrow lines. Pectoral and caudal yellowish with
rows of dark spots. But, as Donovan observes, its colours differ considerably at
different seasons as well as at stages of its growth. Young examples have been
seen with the under surface white, pale yellow, or even rosy, while the sides of
the head are of the same colour as the body. Yarrell states that many examples
are without streaks or lines, the edges of the dorsal and anal fins only being
edged with a darker colour.

Varieties. Donovan mentions an example in which the body was chestnut
colour, strongly marked with longitudinal streaks and lines of white edged
with blue : Mr. Holdsworth, according to Couch, met with one which was
blotched all over with white on a very dark ground, not unlike some individuals
of Gottus bubalis. Collett gives a detailed account of the local forms (1) L. assimilis
(2) stellatus or Liparis stellatus, Malm. (3) subfuscus, (4) scorpioides (5) rnixtus,
(6), decorus, (7) scriptus, (8) lineatus or Liparis lineatus, Kroyer, (9) arcticus,
(10) fuscus.

Names. Sea snail, due to the soft character of its body : unctuous sucker, from
its feel and adhesive apparatus.

Habits. It appears to generally remain in localities not far removed from low
water mark, and is occasionally found in estuaries and some little distance up the
mouths of muddy rivers, but rarely out of tidal influence. It appears to feed on
small Crustacea and other minute animal substances.

Means of capture. Trawling and dredging, or taken under rocks on the tide
receding.

Breeding. Pennant found it full of spawn in January. Other observers have
believed it to breed about February, and McCulloch says that it may ascend
rivers from the sea to deposit its spawn, which is more usually found near the
river's mouth. The eggs are small and numerous : if anything, of less size than
in L. Montag id.

As food. Not eaten except in Greenland.

186 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Habitat. In America it has been captured from the Polar regions to Cape
Cod : and in Europe it extends from the same high latitudes to Scandinavia,
Denmark, Holland, the coasts of Great Britain, and to the Channel and the
shores of France (Moreau). Koelreuter recorded it from Smyrna in the
Mediterranean, which more recent naturalists consider must have been due to
some error.

In the Orkneys it is found under the stones round the shores of many places
(Low), Orkney and Zetland common (W. Baikie), and at the point of Ness,
at Stromness, they may be fished up by dozens : it has been dredged by
Gwyn Jefferies in the deep sea between the Shetlands and Faroe. Of partial
occurrence off Banff (Edward), at Aberdeen (Sim), also at St. Andrew's
(Mcintosh), and occasionally in the Firth of Forth, even above Alloa (Parnell).
In Berwickshire it is not uncommon (Johnston), and although asserted to be
common in Yorkshire (Clark), perhaps the next species is included. It is
said not to be common in Norfolk. Couch records it off the mouth of the Thames,
while along the south coast it has been taken at Exmouth, Weymouth, and
off Falmouth: said to be common at Plymouth (Reading), also found in Corn-
wall where, however, it is rare. At Weston-super-Mare, in Somersetshire, I
found it to be common.

Ireland In the Ordnance Survey Memoir (p. 14, Notices) said to be taken
at Lough Foyle and Lame : Thompson, however, who examined their eight
specimens, considered them to be L. Montagui : he observes the same of
McCalla's Roundstone specimen, and doubts if this species exists among any of
the genus which had been recorded as Irish.

It attains to at least 6 inches in length.

2. Liparis Montagui, Plate LVI, fig. 2.

Gobius, Zool. Dan. iv, p. 16, t. cxxxiv.

Cyclopterus Montagui, Donovan, Brit. Fish, iii, pi. lxviii ; Mont. Wern. Mem.
i, p. 91, pi. v, f . 1 ; (C. Montacuti) Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 115 ; Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 183 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 175.

Liparis Montagui, Cuv. Reg. Anim. ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 277,
c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 374 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 352 ; Gaim. Voy. Skand. Poiss. pi. xiii.
f. 1 ; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 239 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 190 ; Jenyns, Brit.
Vert. p. 473 ; Templeton, Mag. N. Hist. 1837 (2), i, p. 412 ; White, Catal. Fish.
p. 110 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. ii, p. 519 ; Malm. p. 451, t. vii, f. 1 ; W. Thompson,
Mag. N. Hist. 1839 (2) iii, p. 586, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 221 ; Giinther,
Catal. iii, p. 161; Putman, P. Am. Ass. 1874, p. 335; Mcintosh, Fish. St.
Andrew's, p. 175; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 63; Winther, Ich. Prod. Dan.
1879, p. 20.

Liparis gobius, Schager. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 248.

Gyclopterus liparoides, Nilss. Prod. Ich. Scand. p. 62.

? Lepidogaster Cornubiensis, Thomp. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 81.

Montagu's sucker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 193, pi, cvii, fig. 1 and 2.

Network sucker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 195, pi. cvii, fig. 3.

B. v-vi, D. 26-30, P. 30, V. 6, A. 24, C. 14, Coec. pyl. 16, Vert. 10/25.

Length of head 3| to 4i, of caudal fin 6 to 7, height of body 3| to 3| in
the total length. Eye small, lateral, rather in front of the middle of the
length of the head, and 2\ diameters apart. Head large, superiorly somewhat
depressed, its greatest width equalling its length : body anteriorly thick,
posteriorly much compressed. Snout broad : mouth anterior and wide, the
maxilla reaching posteriorly nearly to or quite beneath the front edge of the
eye : the upper jaw slightly the longer. Gill-opening, a rather short vertical
slit, extending to the upper part of the base of the pectoral fin. Nostrils patent,
the posterior nearer the eye than to the upper lip. Teeth very small,
disposed in both jaws in transversely oblique rows : none on vomer, palatine
bones, nor on the tongue, which last organ is very thick. Fins the dorsal
commences above the middle of the pectoral, at first low, it increases in height

DISCOBOLI. 187

posteriorly, where it scarcely joins the base of the caudal. Pectorals reach the
base of the anal fin in some hut not in all examples, they are very broad,
extending downwards and forwards under the throat, the lower five rays rather
elongated, occasioning the fin to appear notched. Ventrals, each has six rays
surrounding the disc, which has 13 soft and flat papilla?, while it is as broad as
long, equalling nearly half the length of the head. Anal commences beneath
the sixth or seventh dorsal ray, it is scarcely so high as the dorsal, while its
last ray is connected with the base of the caudal fin : the latter is cut square.
Vent midway between the posterior extremity of the disc and the commence-
ment of the anal fin. Skin very loose even on the fins. Ccecal appendages
rather long, 16 in number. Colours purplish or yellowish brown with
numerous small dark spots. Dorsal and anal fins yellow, dotted with black :
pectoral yellow, its upper portion also black dotted. Caudal with three or
more vertical bands of black spots, the one nearest the base of the tail being
usually the widest.

Varieties. Collett, Christ. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1879, No. 1, p. 37, gives a
very full account of the local varieties in this species. (1) Principalis
being L Montagui, Malm. (2) maculatus or L. maculat as, Malm. (3) annulatus,
(4) striatus, L. lineatus and L. vulgaris, Malm. (5) p ictus, (6) obscurus,
(7) liparoides or Cyclopterus liparoides, Nilss. (8) Ekstromi or L. Ekstromi, Malm.

Names. Diminutive I ump-such r.

Habits. A comparatively active fish, and rarely uses its sucker unless in a
stream or when it appears likely to be pushed aside, while it is not often captured
at a depth exceeding four or five fathoms, and during the spring and summer may
be found under stones exposed by a receding tide. Mcintosh, of St. Andrew's,
says it is abundant in rock pools in the Laminarian region, and in deeper water, as
in the stomach of the cod and haddock. L. Lester (Zool. 1855) observes on one
he took in Dorsetshire that it attached itself both to the wood of a pail, and to
the sides of a glass bottle. I found in one, two whole and portions of three other
shrimps. They are not unfrequently taken adhering to sea-weed, Faci, and sand-
hoppers have been found in their stomachs. Placed in a globe of sea-water they
at once attach themselves to it.

Breeding. I received tln*ee fine examples and a small one from Brighton
at the commencement of March, 1880, the largest was 5 inches in length, all
were females with the ova fully developed : I have likewise observed them full
of ova in April : large eggs and small ones are present at the same time.
Couch and others have stated that the females are larger than the males :
while Putman remarks that in American examples the latter have the first
six dorsal rays prolonged and fleshy (Pro. Am. Ass. 1874, p. 335). Couch
observes that in examples, he considered the male, he had found the dorsal fin
expanded at its termination, but in the females wider at the middle and narrow
behind.

Habitat. This species has been recorded from Spitzbergen and the White
Sea, as far north as 70 N. lat. It, however, appears to be more numerous
as we proceed to temperate climates than is the Liparis vulgaris. In America
it extends from the Polar regions to Cape Cod.

Discovered by Colonel Montagu at Milton, on the south coast of Devonshire,
it unfortunately in this country has generally been considered a diminutive
form, whereas it attains a size almost equalling that of the sea-snail. In the
Orkneys and Shetland Isles an example upwards of 3 inches in length
was taken by Mr. Syme in the winter of 1850-51 (W. Baikie) : Edward has met
with it at Banff, Sim at Aberdeen, Peach at Wick. Johnston observes it
has been found at Berwickshire, where he considered it rare : Lowe states
it to be common in the estuaries of Norfolk, and to have been several times
taken in the river opposite Lynn in fresh waters at low tides. It is common
off the mouth of the Thames, also along the south coast as far as Devonshire
and Cornwall, in which last county, however, it is not abundant. It is also found
in the Channel Islands.

In Ireland, according to Thompson, it is taken all round the coast.

188 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

Seventh Group Acanthopterygii Gobiesociformes.

A single spineless dorsal fin consisting of few or a moderate number of
rays : it and the anal are situated in the caudal portion of the body. Ventrals
subjugular, with an adhesive apparatus between them. Body scaleless.

Family, XX GOBIESOCELE, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchise rudimentary. Gills three and
a half. Body elongated, anteriorly depressed. Eyes lateral. Teeth conical or
compressed. A single spineless dorsal fin, consisting of a few or a moderate
number of rays, both it and the short anal are situated in the caudal portion
of the body. Ventrals subjugular, placed wide asunder, consisting of one spine
and four or five rays separated by an adhesive disc. Scales absent. Air-
bladder absent. No pyloric appendages.

These small littoral forms are distributed from the shores of Northern
Europe, through the temperate regions of both hemispheres, while some are
present within the tropics. They are mostly found between high and low water
mark, where they firmly attach themselves to rocks, stones or stationary objects.
The adhesive disc is not similar to the same organ in Gyclopterus and Liparis,
as instead of the ventral fins forming its groundwork they are placed wide
asunder, the disc being between them, and only the under surface of some of
their rays constituting a small portion of the entire circumference of the organ.

Genus I. Lepadogaster, Gouan.

Mirbelia, Canestrini. Gobiesox, Lacep.

Branchiostegals five or six : pseudobranchim rudimentary. Anterior portion of
the body and snout broad and depressed. Gill openings of moderate width : the
(jill membranes attached to the isthmus. Teeth pointed. Ventrals, dorsal and
anal fins as defined in the Family, the two last may be either confluent with or
distinct from the caudal fin. Scales absent. Air-bladder and pyloric appendages
absent.

The genus Mirbelia was instituted for the reception of forms in which the
vertical fins were not continuous.

Geographical distribution. From the shores of Scandinavia to the British
Isles and Madeira, also along the coast of France to the Mediterranean.

Remarking upon the habits of one species, Mr. Gosse (Tenby, p. 181) observes
that "It is the habit of this tiny fish to lay its eggs in the interior of old shells
of bivalves that lie on the bottom : and it would appear that it is one of those
species which exercise a parental care over their offspring, watching the eggs
until the young are hatched. We can scarcely call it incubation : but the little
animal coils itself up among its spawn, adhering by the sucking disc of its
belly to the interior of the shell, and continuing there with remarkable
pertinacity. I have kept my specimen now for seven days, during the whole of
which time I do not believe it has left the old cockle shell even for a minute . . .
the embryos continue to be matured from day to day."

There can be no doubt but that the species included in this genus have been

GOBIESOCID^E. 189

rather mixed tip one with another by the various British authors. There appear
to be only three specific forms, and these are subject to almost endless modifications
as to colour. They may be recognized as follows :

A. Dorsal fi.n continuous with the caudal.

a. Dorsal fin with more than ten rays, L. Gouanii.

B. Dorsal fin not continued on to the caudal.

a. Dorsal fin with more than ten rays (14-16), L. Decandolii.

b. Dorsal fin with less than eight rays (5-7), L. bimaculatus.

A. Dorsal and anal fins continuous tvith the caudal.

1. Lepadogaster Gouanii, Plate LVII, fig. 1 .

Small such-fish, Borlase, Cornwall, p. 269, pi. xxv, f. 28, 29. Le Barbier ou
Porte-Ecuelle, Gouan, Hist. Pise. t. i, f. 6, 7. Jura sucker, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(Ed. 1812) iii, p. 137, pi. xxii (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 181, pi. xxv; Couch, Trans. Linn.
Soc. xiv, p. 87.

Lepadogaster rostratus, Bl. Schn. p. 1 ; White, Catal. Fish. p. 108.

Lepadogaster Gouanii, Lacep. i, pi. xxiii, f. 3, 4 and ii, p. 73 ; Risso, Ich.
Nice, p. 72 and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 271 ; Costa, Fauna Napol. Pesc. p. 2,
t. xxiii, f. 1-3 ; Cuv. Reg. Anim. Blus. Poiss. pi. cviii, f . 2 ; Kroyer, Dan.
Fisk. ii, p. 538 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 510 ; Canestr. Arch. Zool. Anat. Maggio,
1864, iii, p. 183 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 20 ; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 33 ;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 356.

Gyclopterus spatula, Lacep. ii, p. 68.

Gyclopterus ocellatus, Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, pi. lxxvi ; Turton, Brit. Fauna,
p. 116.

Gyclopterus lepadogaster, Webb, Artedi, vii, p. 490 ; Bonnaterre, Enc. Ich. p. 29,
pi. lxxxvi, f. 356.

Gyclopterus Gornubicus, Shaw, Zool. v, p. 397 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 338.

Lepadogaster ciliatus, Risso, Journ. Phy. xci, p. 248.

Lepadogaster balbis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 73, pi. iv, f. 9 and Eur. Merid. iii,
p. 274 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Costa, 1. c. t. xxii.

Lepadogaster biciliatus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 272 ; Nord. in Demid. Voy.
Russ. Merid. iii, p. 537, pi. xv, f. 4-6.

Lepadogaster Cornubiensis, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 189 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 1) ii, p. 264, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 359 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 335 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert.
p. 469; Thompson, Proc. Z. Soc. 1835, p. 81 and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 212.

Lepadogaster zebrinus, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. vii, 1839, p. 88.

Lepadogaster Webbianus, Val. in Webb and Berthel. lies Canar. Poiss. p. 85.

Cornish sucker, Couch, Brit. Fishes, ii, p. 196, pi. cviii, f. 2.

B. v-vi, D. 16-20, P. 20-25, V. 1/4, A. 9-11, C. 19.

Length of head 2| to 2|, of caudal fin 6, height of body 5 to 6 in the total
length. Eye 7 to 8 diameters in the length of the head, 1| to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and H apart. Body anteriorly broad and depressed,
but compressed posterior to the termination of the disc. The width of the head
at the occiput equals twice its height : lower surface flat. Snout spatulate, and
has been aptly likened to the bill of a duck : upper jaw slightly the longer : the
maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the orbit. Nostrils close together,
the posterior tubular, the anterior with a well-developed tentacle equalling
about one diameter of the orbit in length. Teeth in a patch of villiform ones
at the anterior portion of either jaw, while laterally they form a single row of
larger ones, which are conical and somewhat curved backwards. Fins the
dorsal commences about midway between the front edge of the eye and the
posterior extremity of the caudal fin, on to which latter both it and the anal
are continued. Caudal wedge shaped or rounded. Pectoral with a broad
base and having a membraneous connection with the inner ray of the ventral.

100 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Ventral consists of one badly developed spine imbedded in tbe skin, and four
rays, the inner of which is connected with the lowest of the pectoral. Between
the ventral fins and extending posteriorly to the middle of the length of the
fish exists a large suctorial disc which is composed of two portions separated
one from the other by a deep groove. The entire organ can be employed as one
sucker, the skin covering the outer but inferior margin of which, is modified
into irregularly shaped flattened points, extending on to the under surface of
the three outer ventral rays, which thus constitute a portion of the disc. As
already observed, the large disc is subdivided into two, the anterior being
connected with the base of the ventral fins but separated by a deep transverse
groove from the posterior portion of the disc. The ventral portion extends
anteriorly towards the throat, where it is formed by two layers of skin passing
from the base of one ventral fin to the other, the inner or lower layer having
a thickened pavement-like appearance as already described, and which is con-
tinued on to the three outer ventral rays ; the centre of this portion is a
smooth pad. The posterior portion of the disc has for its groundwork cartilaginous
expansions from the radius (Owen or coracoid, Parker), its centre is a soft
smooth pad similar to that observed in the anterior portion, while the whole
of its circumference, is formed of two layers of skin forming a free edge :
the lower layer being thickened and modified into flattened nodules as already
described, and just at its posterior margin fine ray-like prolongations of the
cartilage are visible. Skin slightly loose but tough. Colours usually carmine
or purplish red, becoming lighter on the under surface. In some, however, the
ground colour is brown or green. Two or three yellow dark-edged interorbital
bands are usually present : and two large oval, sometimes pyriform, black
ocelli on the occiput surrounded by two lighter rings. Some have oblique blue
stripes on the body. Risso observes that no external differences are pei'ceptible
between the males and the females.

Varieties. The colours widely differ, occasioning some authors to constitute
several different species. L. Gouanii, Risso, is greenish with dark spots,
but no blue markings. L. balbis, Risso, has two dark red spots on the
side of the neck. L. biciliahis, Risso, is green with blue or brown spots
and marks. L. zebrinus, Lowe, is blackish brown, the sides being posteriorly
marked with oblique blue stripes : the neck having divergent cross streaks and
a pair of pear-shaped blotches. In the Ordnance Survey of the county of
Londonderry, two examples of a rich blue colour are alluded to, with deeper
tinted postocular spots.

Names. Jura sucker by Pennant, due to his having first obtained it at Jura
in the Hebrides : Cornish sucker, owing to its being common in Cornwall.

Habits. Resides under stones in pools between the tide marks, where it
can firmly attach itself to stationary or suitable objects. It is inactive, its
movements being a species of wriggle. Montagu remarked that although it is
sluggish it seems to wander, sometimes being abundant, at other times rare.
It is tenacious of life. Couch observes that its food is the smaller crustaceous
and marine insects wdiich it swallows whole.

Breeding. About March or April, when it deposits its ova inside the dead
shells of oysters, scollops, or other bivalves. Couch says the grains of ova are
of considerable size in proportion to the bulk of the fish.

Habitat. Extends from Denmark along the coasts of Great Britain,
Ireland and France where it is common in some localities, to Spain, Portugal,
Teneriffe, and Italy, where, however, it is not common. In fact it may be said to
be rare in the Mediterranean. Orkney and Zetland, one example obtained in
Scalpa Plow, in the winter of 1850, by Mr. J. Syme (W. Baikie), Jura in
the Hebrides (Pennant). Aberdeen, where one local example is in the possession
of Mr. Sim. Montagu considered it to be common at Milton, in Devonshire :
Borlase obtained it in Cornwall, and Mr. Cornish observes that in Cornwall
it is common under stones and in small pools by the sea shore. I have received
it from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, and many examples from Mr. Carrington, f.l.s.,
which he collected in Guernsey.

GOBIESOCIML 191

In Ireland it has been recorded by Thompson from the north-east and
west coasts. Coast of Clare (D. 20, A. 11, V. 4, P. 19, C. 14, B. vi) two filaments
before each eye and a third fleshy appendage placed nearer to the eye and
unconnected with the others. Several examples from Portrush, Oct. 1837,
colour of a rich blue, the spots between the eyes of a deeper tint : Lahinch,
county Clare two examples, July, 1840, between tide marks. August, 1845,
several full-grown examples under stones between tide marks, at Tory Island,
off Donegal.

The example figured life size was one of those received from Guernsey. This
fish attains to at least 4 inches in length.

B. Dorsal fin not continued on to the caudal.
2. Lepadogaster Decandolii, Plate LVII, fig. 2.

Lepadogaster olivaceus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 75 and Eur. Mei'id. iii, p. 274.

Lepadogaster Decandolii, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 76 and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 275 ;
Cuv. Reg. Anim. ; Bris. de Barnev. Rev. Zool. 1846, p. 281 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u.
Port. 1868, p. 20.

Lepadogaster Jussieui, Risso, Europ. Merid. iii, p. 273.

Lepadogaster cephalus, Thompson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, iii, p. 34 and Nat.
Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 214 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 3) ii, p. 341.

Lepadogaster Bafinesqui, Costa, Faun. Nap. t. xxiv, f. 1-3.

Lepadogaster adherens, Bonap. Catal. 65.

Connemara sucker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 201, pi. cix.

Lepadogaster condollii, Giiuther, Catal. iii. p. 513 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii.
p. 360.

Mirbelia Decandolii, Canest. Arch. Zool. Anat. Maggio, iii, p. 189 ; Giglioli,
Pesc. Ital. p. 33.

B. vi, D. 14-16, P. 25, V. 1/4, A. 8-11, C. 18.

Length of head 2f to 3, of caudal fin 5|, height of body 6 in the total length.
Eye diameter about 6 in the length of the head, 1 to 1^ diameters from the end
of the snout, and slightly more apart. Body broad and compressed anteriorly, but
compressed in its last half. The width of the head at the occiput equals twice
its height. Snout somewhat spatulate, the upper jaw the longer. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the first third of the orbit. Nostrils near together, both
slightly tubular, the anterior most so. Teeth in a patch of villiform ones at
the anterior portion of each jaw, while laterally they are in a single row of
larger and hiore separated conical ones. Fins the dorsal commences about
midway between the front edge of the eye and the hind extremity of the
caudal fin : its posterior rays are higher than its anterior ones, while a membrane
passes from its last ray nearly to the base of the caudal fin : the anal which
commences beneath the commencement of the second third of the dorsal has a
similar membrane from its last ray to nearly the base of the caudal : the latter
fin is rounded at its extremity. Pectoral with a broad base, it and the ventral
similar to what has been described under L. Gouanii. Skin rather looser than in
L. Gouanii. Colour red with carmine fins: body with numerous oval and
rather large light spots, some round ones on the fins. Some examples have a dark
ocellus on the side of the head behind the eye.

Varieties. This species, which is said to be sometimes nearly red, is apparently
subject to considerable variation in colour.

Name. Connemara sucker, owing to its having been first recorded as British
from that portion of Ireland.

Habits. Resembling those of the other species of the Genus.

Means of capture. Under stones situated between high and low water mark.

Habitat. Coasts of Ireland, Cornwall, the Channel Islands, and France to the
Mediterranean, where it is common. Couch observed that only a few examples

192 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

had fallen into his hands, rendering it likely that the species is limited to
particular districts. I have received several from Mr. Carrington, f.l.s., taken at
Guernsey : one of which is figured life-size.

In Ireland one example 2| inches long has been captured at Connemara on
the west coast.

3. Lepadogaster bimaculatus, Plate LVII, fig. 3 (f).

Bimaculated sucker, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) p. 397, pi. xxii (Ed. 1812)
p. 182, pi. xxv : Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. vii, p. 293 and Wern. Mem. p. 92.

Gifclopterus bimaculatus, Donov. Brit. Fish, iv, pi. lxxviii ; Walb. Artedi, iii,
p. 490 ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 29, pi. lxxxvi, f. 355 ; Bl. Sclm. p. 199 ; Lacep. ii,
p. 67 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 115.

Gobiesox bimaculatus, Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 339 ; White,
Catal. Fish. p. 108.

Lepadogaster bimacidatus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 190 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 1) ii, p. 2(38, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 363 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 339 ; Nilss. Skan. Faun.
p. 241 ; Diiben en Koren, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1844, p. 109, t. iii, f. 7 ; Flem. Brit.
An. p. 190 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 470 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i,
p. 412 ; Barnev. Rev. Zool. 1846, p. 282 ; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 241 ;
Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 82 and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 212 ; Gunther,
Catal. iii, p. 514 ; Mcintosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. Roy. Soc. Edin. V. 1862-66, p. 614
and Fish. St. Andrews, p. 177 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 20 ; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 90 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 361.

Lepadogaster ocellatus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 74.

Lepadogaster reticulatus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 77 and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 277.

Lepadogaster mirbelia, Risso, Journ. Phy. xci, p. 249 and Eur. Merid. iii,
p. 277.

Lepadogaster Desfontanii, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 275, f. 39 ; Nardo, An.
Ven. 79.

Lepadogaster lineatus, maculatus, and punctatus, Guichen. Explor. Sc. Alger.
Poiss. p. 110, pi. vi, f. 3.

Mirbelia Desfonta?iii, Canest. Arch. Zool. Anal. Maggio, 1864, iii, p. 192.

Mirbelia bimaculata, Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 33.

Doubly spotted sucker, Couch, Fishes of the British Isles, ii, p. 198, pi. cviii,
f. 1.

B. vi, D. 5-7, P. 17, V. 5, A. 4*6, C. 12.

Length of head 2| to 3|, of caudal fin 6|, height of body 6 to 8 in the total
length. Eyes 5-g- diameters in the length of the head, 1 j to 1 diameters from the
end of the snout, and 1^ apart. The posterior nostril close to the eye and patent,
the anterior more tubular. Greatest width of the head 2/3 its length. Body
widest anteriorly, flattened below, snout depressed, spatulate. Upper jaw the
longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of
the orbit. TeetJt, a single row along the lateral ramus of either jaw, those in the
lower being rather widely separated : a patch of villiform teeth anteriorly. Fins
the dorsal commences about midway between the posterior extremity of the
head and the end of the caudal fin, posteriorly it is not continued nearly to the
caudal. The lower rays of the pectoral are not conjoined to those of the ventral.
Anal commences on a line somewhat posterior to the origin of the dorsal, and
does not reach nearly so far posteriorly as to the base of the caudal, which is
rounded or wedge-shaped. The suctorial disc is very similar to that already
described under L. Gouanii. Colours reddish, tinged with orange, some reddish
bands on the head in a V-shape pointing backwards. A black, or dark purple,
light-edged ocellus just behind the end of the pectoral fin. Body somewhat
banded, as is also the caudal fin.

Varieties. The black ocellus on the side of the body has been observed to be
sometimes absent, especially in the young. Its colours are subject to great

GOBIESOCIIDiE. 193

differences. L. lineatus, Guichenot, being green with a pearly white band from the
eye to the tail, from which five cross bars pass towards the back. L. maculatus
is brown with three large red spots on the back. L. punctatus is green, with
three longitudinal brown stripes on the snout, and reddish dots on the body.

Names. Bimacidated and doubly -spotted sucker, due to the black ocellus on
either side, situated near the posterior end of the pectoral fin.

Habits. Adults live in deeper water than the L. Gouanii : smaller ones are
mostly found nearer low water-mark at spring tides than at any other spot. On
being removed from the water they immediately attach themselves to the captor's
hand.

Means of capture. Dredging, found under stones, or, according to Couch,
drawn up in crab-pots, the larger individuals keeping in deep water : he records
how one was rejected from the mouth of a fish which was being hooked at
a depth of thirty-eight fathoms. Mr. Hughes, Zool. 1864, p. 9131, gives an
account of this fish in an aquarium, it is of roving habits but soon accommodates
itself to its new home. Its colours change, dependent perhaps upon the emotions
of the fish, from yellowish white to a rich carnation hue. Its eyes are its especial
beauty, resembling living opals set in burnished gold. It is able to attach
itself firmly to stones, old shells, or other substances. It speedily fixes
itself to some untenanted bivalve shells, sometimes remaining for days with-
out moving, except that it would frequently turn round in the shell with a
smooth gliding motion, especially when anyone went near the aquarium. It ia
most restless during the night, but its locomotive powers appear to consist in
shifting from one stationary position to another ; it therefore appears to be deficient
in the power of pursuing prey, but while at anchor it maintains a constant and
regular fanning with its silvery pectoral fins. Possessing no air-bladder it swims
with difficulty by means of its fins and tail ; and drops, when so desirous, to the
bottom by means of its specific gravity as soon as these cease motion. It eats
bits of mussel, oyster, or small fish.

Breeding. Mr. Hyndman dredging, June 20th, 1844, off St. John's Point,
co. Down, brought up from fifteen fathoms an adult, and a perfect Venus virginea,
in which was one of these fish with its ova and young, some only of which had
made their appearance. At the end of August, in Belfast Bay, he dredged a
single full-grown valve of Pectunculus pilosus, the hollow of which was closely
studded over for the space of a square inch with the ova of this fish, each of
which is globular and about 1/16 of an inch in diameter. Thompson continues
that he has frequently seen this species dredged in old single valves of bivalve
shells, but before Mr. Hyndman's discovery he was not aware of why they were
partial to them.

Habitat. From Scandinavia to the British Isles, the shores of France to those
of the Iberian peninsula, becoming rare in the Mediterranean, but extending to
Algeria and Italy. In the Orkneys and Zetland it is not rare (W. Baikie). In
Scotland one dredged in Loch Ryan was brought to Belfast market. Edward in
Banffshire once took a fish he thinks may be this species. At Lossiemouth, Moray
Firth, an example 1| inches long (Weir, 1852) attached to a shell was drawn up by
a fisherman's line. An example was taken at Blakeney, in Norfolk, in July, 1846
(Lowe, Fauna, p. 15). Donovan obtained it in Kent. At Weymouth it was first
recorded by the Duchess of Portland : Gosse states that during the summer it is
frequently dredged there : and Montagu observed that it was not very uncommon
in Devonshire ; while although found in Cornwall it does not appear to be so
common as L. Gouanii. Mr. CaiTington, f.l.s., obtained it for me from Guernsey,

Ireland. Has been taken on the north-east, east, and west of the island.
One dredged off Bangor, county Down, September 3rd, 1834, in 5 or 6 fathoms
(no spots, P. 18), 1 inch 10 lines long. One, Strangford Lough, October, 1834,
in 5 or 6 fathoms, 1 inch 5 lines long : colours reddish orange, with round spots
and irregular white markings. One had large blotches of pale vermillion along its
back. Templeton dredged two examples, August, 1811. Not uncommon in
Belfast Bay and Strangford Lough. Also taken at Larne.

The example figured was sent to me by Mr. Dunn from Mevagissey. It is
drawn twice the natural size. This form attains to at least 2 inches in length.

13

194 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Eighth Group Acanthopterygii Blenniformes.

Body elongated, sub-cylindrical or compressed. Dorsal fin many rayed,
occasionally composed entirely of spines, or the articulated part may be nearly
or quite as long as, or even longer than, the spinous portion. Ventrals, if
present, thoracic or jugular. Anal of varying length. Caudal present or
absent.

This division comprises two families of which genera have been obtained in
Great Britain. (1) Blenniidce having a rather elongated body : and ventrals when
present jugular. (2) Cejmlidce, body very elongated : ventrals thoracic.

Family, XXI BLENNIIDiE, Sicainson.

Pseudobranchise mostly present. Body elongated, more or less cylindrical.
Teeth may be fixed in the jaws or merely implanted in the gums: a posterior
canine may be present: while some genera have molars. One, two, or three
dorsal fins, nearly occupying the entire length of the back. Ventrals, when
present, sometimes rudimentary, usually jugular. Anal with a moderate or
large number of articulated rays. Caudal, when present, may be confluent
with, or distinct from, the vertical fins. Scales, when present, usually small.
Air-bladder and pyloric appendages generally absent.

The fishes which constitute this family are mostly littoral forms distributed
throughout the greater portion of the temperate and tropical regions, some
extending their range into brackish or even, it is said, into fresh waters.

The British foi'ms belonging to this family appertain to the following
genera :

1. Anarrhichas. Strong conical teeth in the front of the jaws : two rows of
large molars on the palate. No ventral fins. Scales rudimentary.

2. Blennius. A single row of teeth in the jaws, in some likewise a curved
posterior canine. Ventral fins present. S